NDEBELE STATE
The Ndebele state was born out of crises. Thus had it not been of Mfecane the state could not have been created. Emphasis in this book is on the Khumalo migration as well as social, economic, political and military organisations. Learners are advised to study further on the threats to the Ndebele Kingdom as well as Ndebele-Shona relations.
Ndebele settlements during their migration
ekhupumuleni
emhlahlahlandhlela
egabeni
mosega
endinaneni
enkengwini
tshweyane
Groups fought by the Ndebele during their migration
Hurutshe
Kora
Rolong
Griqua
British
Boers
Sotho
Taung
People who occupied Western Zimbabwe when the Ndebele entered
Rozvi
Virwa
Kalanga
Nyubi
Tonga
Venda
Effects of migration on the Khumalo (later called Ndebele)
The Sotho gave the Khumalo the name Ndebele
Intermarriages
Loss of life
Establishment of friendship with RobertMoffart
Cultural fusion
Loss of possessions during wars
Duties of the Ndebele king
Commander in chief of the army
The highest judge
Chief administrator
Presiding over religious ceremonies
Distribution of captives and cattle
Allocation of land
Coordinated military strategy
Got rid of opponents
Economic activities of the Ndebele
Trade
Livestock production
Tribute
Raiding
Hunting
Blacksmithing
Pottery and mining
Internal and external threats to the Ndebele
Succession disputes after Mzilikazi’s death
Resistance of the Shona e.g. Tohwechipi
Cattle disease of 1860
The 1847 Boer expedition
Missionaries who supported the destruction of the Ndebele state
Threat from concession seekers
Why the Ndebele state was regarded as democratic
The existence of Mphakati and the Izikuluacted as check and balance to the king’s power.
Indunas were selected on merit or ability.
Captives were fairly treated e.g. Tohwechipiwas spared by Mzilikazi in 1866 There was religious tolerance.
Subjects were allowed to pay tribute according to the resources they afford e.g. the Shangwe people of Inyoka in Gokwe paid tribute inform of tobacco while the people ofMphosi paid inform of iron.
Why the Ndebele state was regarded as undemocratic
More powers vested in the hands of the King
Men could marry after the approval of the king
Marriages between people of different classes were disapproved
The existence of different classes with different privileges
Language in toleration as the Ndebele language was regarded as official
The largest herd of the cattle belonged to the King and the king ordered how to slaughter them.
Newly conquered people were subjected to considerable amount of bullying.
The Khumalo migration
Facing the fierce wrath of Tshaka after failing to surrender the raided booty,Mzilikazi (the leader of the Khumalo under the Zulu) fled with his followers in search of a safe place to establish his kingdom.Mzilikazi with less than 300 people fled into the interior crossing the Drakensberg. TheKhumalo first settled at Ekhupumuleni (a place of rest) in 1824.
Mzilikazi raided the local people and theNdzundza people were later absorbed into the Khumalo horde. He raided cattle and capturing women and children in order to increase his people. However, the Ndebele (as the Sotho called them) abandonedEkhupumuleni and moved further because they experienced severe drought and were often raided by the Zulu warriors.
Between 1825 and 1829 Mzilikazi moved to central Transvaal and established his new capital at Emhlahlandlela. Here the raids were carried out to northern and central Transvaal as well as Botswana and Lesotho. Cattle and captives were brought in from these raids to swell the Ndebele herds and to increase the population. At this placeMzilikazi met Robert Moffart (a missionary) and the two became friends. This place was not safe for settlement as the Ndebele faced serious threats from Dingane’s army (Dingane ruled after the death of Tshaka). Serious threats also came from the Kora, Khoisan, Griquas and Rolong warriors.
Thus Mzilikazi and the Khumalo moved further and settled at Egabeni along the Marico River where they drove away theHurutshe. At this place Robert Moffartrevisited the Ndebele and Dr Andrew Smith also visited the Ndebele for the first time. The Ndebele raided the Basotho and the Taungbut faced attacks from the Griqua-Tswana force and the Boers.
At Mosega another settlement was established but short lived because the Ndebele were attacked by the Boers, Tswana and the Zulu in 1838. Problems compelledMzilikazi and his group to move further north. Before crossing the Limpopo River, theKhumalo group split into two groups; one led by Mzilikazi, which went via Botswana and the other led by Gundwane Ndiweni, which crossed to the Rozvi state.
Gundwane reached Western Zimbabwe and absorbed the local people such as the Rozvi, Kalanga and the Venda. Mzilikazi had to return from Botswana to Matopos to punish all those who had installed Nkulumane as the King, which was unacceptable to Mzilikazi.
Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration
The following are some of the problems faced by the Khumalo during their migration to western Zimbabwe:
Separation with families as the Khumalofled from Tshaka.
Lack of grazing land for their livestock.
Shortage of food due to droughts.
Wars with many groups such as the Pedi,Rolong, Griqua, Boers, etc.
Loss of life as many people were killed during the wars.
Loss of livestock as some of the cattle were raided by other people and some cattle died due to tsetse flies.
Ndebele homes were burnt by other people.
Rebellion of some ambitious people.
Many people were affected by malaria.
They were attacked by wild animals.
Disruption of trade and farming activities.
They lived in constant fear of external attacks.
Many Khumalo women were captured by other groups.
Ndebele social structure
The Ndebele social structure was characterised by a complex social system made up of three classes. The social groupings had different privileges and responsibilities in the Ndebele society. At the very apex of the social pyramid stoodMzilikazi and the members of the royal family called the Zansi class. This class was made up of the original Khumalo who came from Nguniland. It was more of an elite group which dominated political and military positions as well as having many privileges.
Below the Zansi were the Enhla class which was made up of the incorporated groups during the Ndebele migration e.g. the Sotho and the Tswana. This class constituted 25% of the total Ndebele population. The members of this class enjoyed fewer privileges as compared to the abeZansi class.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were theamaHole class which comprised of the local Shona and Kalanga whom the Ndebele had conquered when they entered Zimbabwe. The members of this group enjoyed fewer rights and were subjected to occasional Ndebele raids, although some historians dispute this. This class was a source of labour to the Ndebele.
These two groupings were jealously preserved and marriages between the persons of different classes were strongly disapproved. The Ndebele believed in high God whom they called Umnkulunkulu.Theyalso adopted the Rozvi Mwari whom they called Mlimo and the Masvikiro whom they called Amadhlozi.
During disaster the Ndebele prayed toAmadhlozi to avert the disaster. Religious leaders were highly reverenced as revealed by Mzilikazi and later Lobengula who paid tribute to the Mwari people who stayed atMatonjeni and Uswa. The Ndebele people were polygamous as they married many wives.
The Ndebele like the Zulu observed theInxwala ceremony which was attended by all the people and conducted at the King’s town. Many cattle were killed at this ceremony which was often presided over by the King. The Ukulagisa system was practiced in the Ndebele state. This system meant the distribution of cattle by the king to his subjects for them to use without selling or killing them. That is how Bere and some men under Gomara got Lobengula’s cattle. Thus the claim that the Ndebele king was tyranny, savagery and unmerciful barbarian is both misleading and baseless.
Ndebele economic structure.
1. Raiding was an important economic activity. The army apart from being a defence instrument, was also an instrument for creating wealth. Raids were conducted to obtain cattle, grain and women. Raids were carried out in Mashonaland, Zambezi and as far as Zambia. In Mashonaland, only those chiefs who refused to pay tribute were raided.
2. Crop cultivation was the base of the Ndebele economy. Crops such as millet, sorghum and Rapoko were grown. The Induna Enkulu and the chiefs were responsible for the allocation of land. People were to provide labour in the King’s field and communal work parties called Ilima were done. The agricultural produce could be used in trade, ceremonies and payment of tribute.
3. Livestock production was another economic activity in the Ndebele state. Cattle ownership was highly regarded in the Ndebele state. The King owned the largest herd of cattle. The king could distribute his cattle to the subjects through the Ukulagisasystem. Cattle could be used to pay lobola, trade and to give to the subjects as a reward. The Ndebele moved from one grazing area to another in search of good grazing lands.
4. Trade was conducted with the Whites and the local people like Mashayamombe. In external trade the Ndebele got exotic items such as beads and clothes. They traded with missionaries based at Inyathi and with hunters such as John Lee and Wilson Asher as well as the Portuguese.
5. Tribute was paid to the King to show respect to the King. The Shona pieople of theChirimuhanzu dynasty paid tribute to the Ndebele. Tribute was paid inform of spears, hides, clothes and beads. All those who refused to pay tribute were raided by the Ndebele.
6. Hunting was done by the Ndebele to obtain ivory which would be used in foreign trade. They also mined gold for trading and iron which was used by the Blacksmiths.
NB For other economic activities refer to other precolonial states in Zimbabwe.
Ndebele political and military organization
The Ndebele state was centralised and covered a limited area of settlement. All Ndebele settlements were located 80 km radius of the King’s village. The king was the commander of the army, highest judge, chief administrator, religious leader and distributor of captives.
The king presided over national ceremonies such as Inxwala. The king ruled with the help of two advisory councils. The first was theMphakati which was the highest decision making body in the state and this body was made up of the members of the Zansi. The second was the Izikulu which was made up of the individuals chosen on merit. It included elders noted for their wisdom on tradition and customs. This discussed important national issues before presenting to the Mphakati.
The Ndebele state was divided into regimental towns which include theAmanyama, Amakanda, Amahlope and theIzigaba. Each settlement was a settlement of soldiers and supporting civilians; and the leader of a town was called an Induna. The Induna Enkulu (usually appointed from theZansi class) was the leader of a province.
The chiefs had a duty of limited distribution of cattle and were bound to travel to the royal town where they formed the advisory council. The Ndebele army was divided into regiments. The young men could marry after the blessing of the king. The army was used to raid the Shona, as well as to maintain law and order.
The town Indunas commanded the armies in towns. Tribute was paid to the King to show loyalty. Lobengula (who ruled afterMzilikazi) was able to maintain his authority over the Ndebele until his state was destroyed by the imperial forcesOverv.
SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
As from 1870s the European Powers changed their attitude towards Africa. They started to be interested in extending their political influence outside Europe. Thus there was a rush to annex the African colonies leading to a possibility of wars amongst the Europeans. This led to the convening of the Berlin colonial conference which set rules for the peaceful partition of Africa. In this topic I am going to cover the causes for scramble, the course and the results of the scramble and partition of Africa.
European powers involved in the scramble for Africa
Portugal
Britain
Italy
Germany
Spain
Belgium
France
European powers involved in the scramble for Southern Africa
Germany
Britain
Portugal
European powers and some of their African colonies
Britain [Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Lesotho, Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, etc.]
France [Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, etc.]
Germany [Cameroon, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia, etc.]
Portugal [Mozambique, Angola, etc.]
Italy [Somalia, Libya, Eritrea, etc.]
Belgium [Congo]
African kingdoms colonized during the scramble
Zulu
Ndebele
Kololo
Xhosa
Sotho
Gaza
Swazi
African leaders who sought British protection during the scramble
Mswati of the Swazi
Khama of Ngwato
Moshesh of the Basotho
Causes of the scramble for Africa.
The need for new markets
The need for raw materials
Need to export excess population
Need to show supremacy
Need to invest surplus capital
Need to solve problems at home
The effect of industrialization
Activities of merchants, traders, explorers and missionaries
The effect of scientific advances
Methods used by Europeans to colonize Africa
Use of chartered companies
Use of concession seekers and hunters
Buying of agreements
Trickery
Bribery
Use of treaties
Use of missionaries
Use of force or wars
Use of explorers
Protectorate status
Results of the scramble and partition of Africa
New boundaries were created
New chiefs were installed
Loss of life
New systems of administration were introduced
Loss of chiefly prerogatives
Forced labour was introduced
Family disintegration
Infrastructure development
Complete removal of slave trade
Introduction of legitimate trade
Effective exploitation of African resources
Loss of independence
African culture was undermined
European agents in the colonization of Africa
C.J Rhodes from Britain
Karl Peters from Germany
De Brazza from France
Morton Stanley from Belgium
William Mackinnon from Britain
Harry Joston from Britain
Louis Faidherbe from France
Countries represented at the Berlin colonial conference of 1884-5
Britain
France
Germany
Portugal
Belgium
Italy
Spain
Benefits of colonization to Southern Africa
Infrastructure development e.g. roads, railways etc.
Building of industries and creation of employment.
End of slave trade.
New farming methods were introduced e.g. irrigation, crop rotation.
Better weapons for defence were introduced.
New crops were introduced.
Better means of transport were introduced.
End of some barbaric African customs such as twin destruction.
Causes for the scramble and colonization of Africa
a) Economic reasons
After the Industrial Revolution, Europe produced more goods and there was under consumption. Hence there was a need to sell surplus goods and the African continent found herself attracting to Europe.
Industries in Europe needed raw materials for them to continue functioning and Africa offered the possibility of vast natural resources to feed European industries, thus Africa was colonized to get resources.
Africa was also colonized because the European powers wanted to control areas of economic interests, especially where minerals were found. The discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa appetized them to colonize Africa. They suspected copper in Shaba province of Congo and gold in Ghana.
Africa was colonized to invest surplus capital in the continent. They wanted to have a place where they could start their businesses. Thus Africa was a good place uncivilized which meant to them no economic rivalry.
Industrialization resulted in new technology being introduced which enabled them to conquer more lands. For example, the invention of a steam ship made movement of Europeans to Africa so easier leading to colonization.
b) Political factors
Africa was colonized to show supremacy. The acquisition of many colonies was regarded as a sign of greatness. Thus many European Powers colonized Africa to show that they were super Powers.
Political rivalry among the Europeans made Africa to be colonized. Sour or bad relations between France and Germany made these countries to colonize Africa to increase their strength and power in case of any eventuality.
Strategic motives made the whole of Africa to be colonized. The annexation of the Suez Canal in 1882 by Britain to ensure the security of her highways to the Far East, made other European Powers to rush for territories of interests in Africa.
The influence of individuals such as Bismarck, Leopold and Rhodes, made the colonization of Africa inevitable. Bismarck for example convened the Berlin colonial conference in 1884 from which the principle of effective occupation was agreed. By such principle African territories were no escape from European imperialism.
c) Social factors
Europeans scrambled in Africa in order to civilise it. Missionaries who worked to bring civilisation in Africa worked together with imperialists and asked for European governments to conquer Africa.
The need to stop slavery and slave trade made the colonization of Africa. Many Europeans wanted to conquer African territories in order to silence slavery and slave trade which were believed to have been part of people’s social life in Africa.
Scramble was also caused by the need to export excess population. Most of the land in Europe had been used during industrialisation. Hence the Europeans wanted to free space in order to export part of the population and Africa was found the best place.
The Berlin colonial conference 1884-1885
The years after 1870 saw many Europeans rushing in Africa to acquire colonies. There was no agreement as to how the partition of Africa was to be done. Hence there was the possibility of conflicts. Thus the conference was held in Germany aiming at putting rules to prevent conflicts among imperial powers. The one who called the conference was OttoVon Bismarck, a Germany Chancellor. Terms agreed
All powers to enjoy freedom of navigation on major rivers that is Zambezi, Congo, Niger.
Before areas could be claimed as colonies, treaties would be signed with African chiefs.
Other imperial powers should be notified of any claim to allow them to make counter claims.
All claims to be followed by effective occupation in order to be valid.
The European powers were to stop slave trade in the areas occupied.
The Congo Region was recognised as belonging to Leopold of Belgium.
The conference stimulated the race for colonies in Africa hence the process which had begun earlier was speeded up in a peaceful atmosphere. Thus one can be lured to argue that the Berlin colonial conference to a larger extent should be blamed for the colonization of Southern Africa in particular and Africa as a whole in general.
The competition for Southern Africa
The British, Germans, Portuguese and the Boers fiercely scrambled over the control of certain territories in Southern Africa. The Boers and the British competed for the control of Zimbabwe. Both of them wanted to expand north of thee Limpopo; the British from Cape while the Boers from Transvaal. This competition was erupted after the refusal of the Boers to be in the South African confederation under the British law. After the refusal it became a British policy to deter any Boer expansion.
Competition for the land between Zambezi and Limpopo is revealed by the signing of theGrobler treaty (of the Boers) with Lobengulain 1887, which was cancelled due to the signing of the Moffart treaty (of the British) in 1888. The British did not only barrier the Boers from expanding into Zimbabwe, but they stopped Boer Westward expansion by ensuring Bechuanaland to be a British protectorate.
Britain and Portugal also competed for the control of Eastern Zimbabwe. After the signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes claimed to have been given power to take over control of Mashonaland. However, this did not go well with the Portuguese who wanted to use their long established trading relationship with the Shona to control Mashonaland and Manicaland from Mozambique. Many treaties were signed in the 1890s with the Shona chiefs by the Portuguese in an attempt to control Mashonaland, but Rhodes’ imperial stamina was unshaken.
The British and the Germans from Namibia both wanted to control Botswana andMatebeleland. The competition between the two powers was rife and Britain occupied Botswana as a protectorate state and this frustrated Germany’s efforts. By the Rudd concession and the war of dispossession, Britain was able to take control ofMatebeleland. Thus the Germans failed to realise their imperial aims overMatebeleland.
The results of the scramble
1. Political Results
New boundaries were formed to suit the desires of the imperialists. Resistant chiefs were removed from power and new chiefs who were loyal to the imperialists were installed. There was loss of independence by Africans as they were subjected to colonial rule. East Africa was divided between Germany and Britain e.g. Britain got Uganda and Kenya while Germany got Tanganyika. New systems of administration were introduced e.g. the British introduced indirect rule, the Germans direct rule while the Portuguese introduced assimilation.
2. Economic results
The locals were recruited to work in farms and mines of the Europeans. Forced labour was introduced to the Africans. The Africans were deprived of their land. Taxation was introduced to Africans as a way of taking wealth from the locals. Infrastructure developed in administration centres such as Salisbury (modern day Harare). Legitimate trade was introduced after the complete wiping up of slave trade. There was maximum exploitation of resources such as ivory, rubber and minerals by the Whites. Agriculture was promoted and developed and some crops introduced became the export base for many African states.
3. Social results
Local families who had history were broken and separated e.g. after the colonization of Southern Africa the Shona people fell some in Mozambique and others in Zimbabwe. There was loss of life especially when the Europeans used force to silence the resisting chiefs. African culture was undermined and western praOverviegan to dilute the social way of life of the Africans
Colonisation of Zimbabwe
The process of colonizing Zimbabwe began in the 1880s with the increasing influx of the Whites in the country. In 1897 Zimbabwe was completely colonized by the British after fierce wars often called the wars of resistance. In this book I am going to cover the causes for the colonization of Zimbabwe, the treaties signed with Lobengula, the Pioneer column up to the first Chindundumagenerally known as the first Chimurenga. Reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe
the need for minerals
a strategy to stop Boer expansion
the Cape to Cairo dream
to compensate false investments in Rand
activities of missionaries, hunters and traders
the need for markets
the need for a place to settle
the need for land
the need to invest surplus capital
Stages in the colonization of Zimbabwe
Moffart treaty 1888
Rudd Concession 1888
Royal Charter 1889
Formation of the BSAC 1890 Jameson’s Party to Lobengula 1890
The Pioneer Column 1890
The war of dispossession 1893-1894
The first Chimurenga 1896-1897 The treaties signed with Lobengula
Tati concession 1870
Grobler treaty 1887
Moffart treaty 1888
Rudd concession 1888
Lipert treaty 1890
Forts built by the BSAC in Zimbabwe
Fort Tuli
Fort Victoria
Fort Charter
Fort Salisbury
Fort Usher
Fort Rixon
Fort Melsetter
Fort Martin
Contribution of Rhodes towards the colonization of Zimbabwe
Financed the colonization from the Moffarttreaty to the First Chimurenga
Organised the BSAC
Recruited the Pioneers
Sought the Royal Charter
Organized the war against the locals
Why Lobengula failed to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe
Rhodes bribed many people
Lipert cheated Lobengula
Lobengula’s Indunas misled him
Missionaries cheated Lobengula
Lobengula was illiterate
The Boers did not aid the Ndebele
Causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war
Jameson boundary
Conflict over the Shona
Failure to find gold in Mashonaland
Company shares fell
Company desire for the second Rand
Ndebele raids
Shona refusal to pay tax
Settler desire to destroy the Ndebele state
The Victorian incident
Causes of the First Chimurenga
Brutality of the BSAC policemen
Loss of land
Loss of cattle
Ill-treatment of Shona workers
Forced labour
Hut tax
Natural disasters
Loss of independence
Loss of trade
Abuse of women
The role of religion
African leaders involved in the FirstChimurenga
Zvimba
Chinamora
Seke
Mapondera
Zhanda
Nyandoro
Mashayamombe
Hwata
Chiwese
Nyamweda
Kaguvi
Nehanda
Chihota
Mangwende
Religious leaders involved in the FirstChimurenga
Kaguvi
Mkwati
Siginyamatshe
Bonda
Chifamba
Mabwani
Nehanda
Reasons for the defeat of the natives in the First Chimurenga
Inferior weapons of the locals
The capture of Shona leaders
Lack of unity among the locals
Lack of strategy
Superior weapons of the Whites
The Whites were helped by other Powers
Ndebele surrender
Hunger and starvation
Scotched earthy policy of the Whites
Causes for the colonization of Zimbabwe
1. The British colonized Zimbabwe because they wanted mineral resources such as gold. Zimbabwe was regarded as a second Rand and the British occupied the territory in order to exploit the minerals.
2. Faulty investments in the Rand made Rhodes to be interested in colonizing Zimbabwe. After the failure to successfully invest in Luapardvlei, Rhodes colonized Zimbabwe to compensate the losses which he suffered.
3. Zimbabwe was colonized as a British strategy to force the Boers to accept the British scheme of South African Confederation under the British law. The Boers had refused to join the British, and after this the British were determined to colonise areas north Limpopo to stop the expansion of the Boers northwards.
4. Zimbabwe was colonized as part of the fulfilment of the Cape to Cairo project by Rhodes. Rhodes was an imperialist who wanted to control vast lands in Africa from South Africa to Cairo. Thus Zimbabwe was no exception in this project.
5. Missionaries caused the colonization of Zimbabwe. The protestant ideology of missionaries all pressed them towards supporting the colonization of Zimbabwe. After their failure to convert any single soul in Matebeleland, missionaries started to make clarion calls for the colonization of Zimbabwe. This attracted many imperialists leading to the colonization of the state.
6. Zimbabwe was colonized in order to enable the settlement of the Whites. The land which was promising high agricultural productivity and the pastures ofMatebeleland well for cattle ranching, all impressed the British to colonize Zimbabwe.
7. Racist tendencies that was high during the 19th century also explain why Zimbabwe was colonized. Rhodes believed the British to be the finest race in the world. Thus he colonized Zimbabwe and other countries in order to civilise what he labelled barbaric race of Africa.
The Grobler treaty 1887
The Transvaal government of the Boers wanted to expand north Limpopo after the discovery of gold at Witwatersrand. They believed that Zimbabwe had vast gold deposits more even to that of the Rand. Paul Kruger sent Peter Grobler to Lobengula to discuss for a friendly treaty and Kruger’s envoys agreed the following with Lobengula, King of the Ndebele:
a. Lobengula was to be a friend of the Boers
b. Hunters and traders from Transvaal were to be allowed to operate freely inMatebeleland.
c. The Transvaal government was allowed to maintain permanent representatives at Bulawayo.
d. Lobengula agreed to provide military aid to the Boers against the British.
e. The Boers were to help Lobengulaagainst his enemies
f. Lobengula agreed to catch and hand back all the criminals who escaped from Transvaal
g. Lobengula was not allowed to administer the Boers. Thus the content of the treaty was entirely in favour of the Boers.
The signing of this treaty triggered the scrambled for Zimbabwe as many concession seekers streamed into the country. The treaty alarmed the British who did not want to see Zimbabwe falling into the hands of the Boers. The British then sent JS Moffart to Lobengulaleading to the cancelling of the Grobler treaty and the signing of the Moffart treaty.
The Moffart Treaty 1888
The main purpose of Moffart’s mission was to reverse the Gobbler treaty of 1887 and to bring Matebeleland into the British sphere of influence as a step towards the British occupation of Zimbabwe. The treaty was signed by Lobengula and John Smith Moffartin February 1888.
Moffart was sent because he was the son of Robert Moffart who had been friended
Lobengula’s father during the 1820s. It was hoped that this relationship would help to oil the wills of diplomacy. It affirmed that peace and amity should continue to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.
Lobengula was persuaded to make no dealing with any other foreign power without the knowledge and permission of the British High commissioner or Lobengulapromise that if and when he tended to cede any land to another imperial power, he must consult the British first.
Lobengula had no intention to cede land to another imperial power and thus probably why he signed. It brought the British a step forward towards the colonisation of Zimbabwe. In order for the British to safeguard or consolidate their position they now sought for another concession fromLobengula. It eliminated other players in the scramble for Zimbabwe. This was called the Rudd concession.
The Rudd Concession 1888
Rhodes was not satisfied about the terms of the Moffart treaty, he thus sent a delegation of three people to negotiate for a mineral treaty with Lobengula. These envoys include Charles Rudd (a friend of Lobengula), Rockford Maguire (a lawyer) and Francis Thomson (a fluent Nguni Speaker). A close scrutiny can leave none with doubt that the organization of a delegation reveals thatLobengula was a victim of calculated deception. Charles Helm a missionary also misled the Ndebele king into signing the Rudd concession. Pressure to sign the legal document came also from Lobengula’strusted Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, who had been bribed by the Whites. Thus the signing of the Rudd concession followed an incredible saga of chicanery.
The following were the written terms (non-verbal) and non-written (verbal terms) of the Rudd concession:
a) Written terms
Lobengula was to receive 100 pounds (British money) per month
Lobengula was to be given 1000 rifles (guns)
Lobengula was also to be given 100 000 rounds of ammunition (bullets)
A gunboat was to be placed in the Zambezi River
The whites were allowed to do what they deem necessary The Whites were granted all metals and minerals in Matebeleland b) Non written terms
Lobengula promised that no more than ten men would enter his kingdom.
He promised that those entering the Ndebele kingdom would follow the Ndebele laws/rules.
If and when acquired to do so, those entering the kingdom would assist Lobengulain defending his state.
No entrance of men and machinery into the Ndebele kingdom before the payment of first instalment of the guns promised.
The concession to be published in newspaper for the world to know. The Whites were to dig one hole and return back to South Africa.
With such promises which were not fulfilled later, Lobengula was made to sign the Rudd concession with Reverend Helm as the witness. Lobengula was cheated and he realised this later and he tried to carry out a desperate remedy for a desperate situation in order to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe.
Reaction of Lobengula after the Rudd concession
After E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated by Rhodes’s men, he wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession. He also wrote a letter to the British High Commissioner based in Botswana. He also sent two emissaries to the Queen in England accompanied by Maund.Lobengula even killed his two Indunas,Lotshe and Sikombo, because they had misled the king into signing the Rudd Concession. Lobengula invited many explorers to explain to him about the Rudd Concession. He continued to emphasize the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to those at his court. Lobengula publicly denounced the Rudd concession and a search party was sent after Maguire. Lobengulafinally signed the Lipert treaty to frustrate Rhodes. However despite Lobengula’s efforts to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe, the diplomacy of Rhodes as well as missionary chicanery made the colonization of Zimbabwe predetermined.
The Royal Charter 1889
After the Rudd concession, Rhodes wasted no time in seeking a royal charter from the British Queen. A charter is an official document from a Queen granting somebody a permission to do something on behalf of a certain government. The charter was granted to Rhodes in October 1889 by the Queen. The Charter granted Rhodes and his group the following:
(a) To promote good governance
(b) To preserve peace and order
(c) To issue mining concessions
(d) To grant plots of land
(e) To establish banks
(f) To make roads, railways and telegraphs
(g) To promote trade and commerce
(h) To promote civilization
(i) To respect the local customs, laws and religion
(j) To ban the sale of liquor to the locals
(k) To abolish slave trade
By the provisions of the charter the result was that Rhodes and his group were given all power to take over and rule the region to the north of Limpopo. Another result was the formation of the BSAC which was to invade Zimbabwe. The Pioneer Column
Having obtained the charter, Rhodes wasted no time in organizing a party which was to occupy the land between Zambezi and Limpopo for the first time. Adverts were sent throughout the entire world as far as to Canada and from many applicants only 200 were selected. Those who were suitable were aged 30 years and below and were supposed to have African experience. Those who were selected fell under the pay roll of Rhodes. The members of the Pioneer Column represented various skills, there were teachers, nurses, blacksmiths, carpenters, miners, farmers, bakers as well as traders. Rhodes promised each member of the Column a farm of 3000 acres as well as 15 gold mines on reaching Mashonaland. The occupation of Mashonaland was to be carried in a form of military invasion. Thus the Pioneers were accompanied by a police force of about 500, which was led by Colonel Pennefathertogether with Barrow and Heanry as juniors. The work of the police Force was to crush any resistance from the local people. Khamaof Botswana also aided the Pioneers with soldiers. The leader of the Pioneers was Frank Johnson and the guider was Fredrick Courtney Selous who previously hunted in Zimbabwe.
The march to Mashonaland started in early1890 with goods of the Pioneers carried by about 117 ox wagons. In June the Pioneers crossed Moloutsie River while in July the same year they crossed Shashi River. The Ndebele Amabutho wanted to vent out their exasperations as they saw the incoming of the Pioneers, but Lobengula restrained them because he clearly understood the detrimental effect of the White gun. On their way the Pioneers erected laagers in case of any eventuality and they built Forts such as Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria and Fort Charter. On September 12 1890, the Pioneers reached Harare. The Shona people received them asVaeni. From that day up to 18 April 1980, the country was a colony of Britain for 90 years
The war of Dispossession 1893-1894 Causes
1. The company wanted to destroy the Ndebele kingdom because it symbolise the independent African state.
2. The British settlers under Doctor Jameson the residence commissioner and the Ndebele had divergent interest over the Shona people. The Ndebele regarded the Eastern part of Zimbabwe as part of their tributary state system whiles the company and the white settler farmers saw the Eastern part as their source of labour.
3. Jameson thought the solution was on drawing and defining a boundary where the Western part was Matebeleland and Eastern part Mashonaland under whites. The problem was that it kept shifting intoMatebeleland and Lobengula was not willing to confine his raids within the Western part.
4. Arrival and settlement of white settlers in Eastern Zimbabwe interfered with Ndebele tributary. Some Shona chiefs thought that an end to Ndebele raids. Some stopped paid annual tribute e.g. chiefNemakonde and chief Chivi and were killed for failure to submit to the Ndebele rule. To the British such acts were unacceptable because they interfered with the British activities as the Shona were their main source of cheap labour on their farms.
5. The BSAC envied Ndebele land and Cattle at the same time they were hoping to discover gold, they had found little amount of gold in Mashonaland and the company shares were failing.
6. The existence of large of large and powerful independent Africa State i.e. Ndebele was greatly resented by the settlers who viewed it as a symbol of Africa independence. They also thought that it would have a negative influence of Africans under their control.
7. The Victoria incident- this incident took place following an attempt byLobengula to asset his authority over his tributary state system. 1892 incident occurred in and around Masvingo which was a potentially wealthy agriculture branching and mining. The white settlers were engaged in farming and mining using Shona as labourers. In May 1893 chief Gomara usedLobengula cattle to pay a fine to the British when his men had cut and carried away about 500 yards of telegraph wire. In the meantime, Chief Bere took cattle belonging toLobengula. A primitive expedition was sent by Lobengula with strict instruction to avoid clashes with the settlers.
In July 1893 a raid was carried out, homes burnt, man killed and women and girls driven in the neighbourhood of Fort Victoria. Farms and mines in Eastern were deserted of African labour force. As a result economic activities came to stand still. Jameson ordered Ndebele to leave the area within two hours but the Ndebele failed to withdraw on time resulting in skirmishes between them and the white forces. Eleven Ndebele worries were killed and the rest fled. Sensing victory the settlers now demanded full scale war in order to destroy the Ndebele kingdom once and for all. Course of the war
The Victorian Incident made the war between the Whites and the Ndebele to break out. The settlers who volunteered to fight the Ndebele were promised 2469 hectares of land each and a herd of cattle. The Whites were aided by Khama with the soldiers to fight the Ndebele. The war started in October 1893 with the Ndebele being numerically superior, but using poor weapons such as spears. The Whites were armed with guns and modern weapons as well as horses which increased their mobility. The Whites under the command of William Forbes moved from Iron Hill Mine heading towards Bulawayo. The Ndebele intelligent units watched the movements of the Whites. The Whites built a laager on 25 October to rest after they crossed the Shangani River. Early in the morning the Whites were attacked by the Ndebele Amabutho and many Shona collaborators were killed because they were sleeping outside the laager.
However the Amabutho were repelled after several hours of fighting. The Whites moved further and built another Laager nearMbembesi River on 31 October. The Ndebele also attacked the Whites but they were successfully repelled by the Whites. Many Ndebele soldiers were killed at this battle. The Whites wanted to storm Bulawayo and capture the Ndebele king Lobengularesponded by setting his capital on fire and then escaped northwards The Whites captured the city and then raised their Union Jerk on November 4 1893. Jameson ordered the pursuit of Lobengula because he thought that if the king was not captured, he [Lobengula] would continue encouraging theAmabutho to fight on.
The Pursuit of Lobengula (Allan Wilson’s Party)
On 3 November Bulawayo fell to the BSAC Forces and Lobengula fled northwards.
Jameson ordered Forbes and Captain Raaf to pursue and capture the Ndebele King. On December 3 Major Forbes and his Forces reached Lobengula’s Shangani Camp.
The BSAC found out that Lobengula had quickly abandoned his camp and they failed to catch up with him. Fearing to be captured,Lobengula sent two chiefs to the pursuers with a piece of message pleading for peace.Lobengula’s surrender message and gold did not reach Forbes and the latter continued searching for Lobengula. Forbes and his Forces camped at Shangani. Forbes assigned Wilson and his group of 21 men to go further and find Lobengula’s direction. Allan Wilson’s Forces caught up with
Lobengula’s fleeing Party on the Western side of the River. Wilson requested reinforcement but Forbes did not comply. Instead he dispatched Barrow with 20 men without instructing them whether they were a support unit or another attacking Force.
Barrow’s Force joined Allan Wilson’s group on 4 December and together the White Forces attacked Lobengula’s group.Lobengula’s group attacked the White Forces and Barrow together with Wilson were killed, except 3 Whites who fled. Forbes did not assist his colleagues because the River was dangerously flooded. On December 5, Forbes and the rest retreated and they never captured Lobengula.
Results
Matebeleland was opened up for white settlement signifying complete colonization of Zimbabwe. The white settlers were given land grants, thus 6350 acres and 20 gold claims plus part of Ndebele cattle, as a reward for being involved in the war. Two reserves namely Gwai and Shangani were created by Ndebele and were dry infertile hot tsetse infested. The rest of the Ndebele cattle were taken over by the company by virtue of conquest, only 40000cattle were left to the Ndebele. White settlement brought taxation, forced labour and other forms of political and exploitation. New communication channels were developed in Bulawayo. Telegraph line was erected which linked Bulawayo with Cape Town. Trading stores, Banks and new houses were established. A printed paper was produced.
