HISTORY

GREAT ZIMBABWE

Great Zimbabwe is located at the southern edge of the Zimbabwean plateau. It is the largest of an estimated 300 dry stone walled structures of what archaeologists now call the Zimbabwe culture of southern Africa. The culture is broadly dated to the period between the 11th and the 18th Century AD. The majority of the sites of this culture are found in the modern state of Zimbabwe. 

The ancient city of Great Zimbabwe covers an area of approximately 7 hectares consisting of different dry stone wall enclosures, although it has become customary to divide the ancient city into three principal parts, the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure and the Valley ruins. In addition are areas referred to as peripheral settlements. The Hill Complex, regarded as the seat of power during the occupation of Great Zimbabwe, consists of a series of enclosures constructed on a prominent hill to the north of the monument.

 The Great Enclosure is located in the valley adjacent to the Hill Complex and is perhaps the most spectacular and most substantial part of the monument. It has an outer wall approximately 250 m in length with an approximate height of 10 m. It is now agreed to be the largest single prehistoric structure in sub-Saharan Africa. Inside the Great Enclosure are a number on internal stone enclosures, including the Conical Tower as well as remains of Dhaka (adobe) platforms. The Valley Ruins are located between the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure and consist of a number of individual dry stone enclosures of varying size. 

There is a general consensus that Great Zimbabwe have flourished between 1250 and 1450. The historic site of Great Zimbabwe consists of 12 groups of buildings covering an area of 3 square miles.  Its outer wall was constructed from 100,000 tons of granite bricks.  At its height it was said to be a 14th Century walled city occupied by 18,000 people.  In close proximity 4,000 gold mines were said to have existed and there were facilities for iron smelting and the manufacture of copper and bronze artefacts. Imports of stoneware and glazed dishes from China, coloured glass from the Near East and painted bowls from Persia have been found at the site.

The history of this precolonial Zimbabwean State came mainly from archaeology. In this booklet I am going to unfold the economic, social and political organisations of Great Zimbabwe State. It is equally important for learners of history to take note of the reasons for the building of the great stone structure as well as the factors that led to the demise of the state.

Factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

 Availability of granite rocks

 Emergency of ambitious leaders

 Location was favourable to international trade

 A strong army

 Rich mineral wealth in neighbourhood

 Development of iron technology

 Favourable climate  

 Abundant water supplies from Mtirikwi River

 Availability of pastures

 Strong religion 

 Fertile soils

 Population growth due to polygamy Why Great Zimbabwe was built?

 As a trading centre

 As a religious centre

 As Mambo’s court

 As an administrative centre

 As a dwelling place for the nobles

 As a symbol of power

 As a fortress in times of war

The economic activities at Great Zimbabwe

 Trade (external and internal trade)

 Mining

 Cattle rearing (pastoralism)

 Crop cultivation

 Tribute payment Hunting and gathering

 Blacksmithing/iron smelting

 Pottery, weaving and basketry

 Raiding 

Trade items or exports at Great Zimbabwe

 Soap stones

 Gold

 Grain

 Ivory

 Iron tools  Livestock

 Skin hides

 Iron tools

Imports/items brought in at Great Zimbabwe

 Clothes

 Beads

 Seashells

 Chinaware

 Ceramics

 Bangles        

 Glass

Foreigners who traded with Great Zimbabwe

 Chinese

 Persians

 Arabs

 Portuguese

 Indians

 Swahilis

 Zambians

Crops grown at Great Zimbabwe

 Sorghum

 Millet

 Rapoko

 Maize

 Melons

 Beans

Crafts at Great Zimbabwe

 Weaving

 Basketry

 Pottery

 Spinning

 Blacksmithing

 Curving

Other Madzimbabwe in Zimbabwe

 Ruanga

 Chipadze

 Tsindi

 Khami

 Naletale

 Nhunguza

 Manekweni

Uses of cattle at Great Zimbabwe

 For trade

 To pay lobola

 To pay tribute

 Used in ritual ceremonies

 Manure

 Skins used in blast furnaces             

 Used to pay fines

 Skins were also used to make shields, drums and sandals

 Forms of transport

Political factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

 Corruption and disunity among the elite

 Succession disputes

 Emergency of ambitious leaders

 External attacks from the Sotho-Tswana people

 The vastness of the Empire

Economic factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

 Exhaustion of soil

 Shortage of salt

 Overgrazing

 Decline in external trade

 Successive droughts

 Shortage of ivory

 Depletion of resources such as wood

Social factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Overpopulation

Disunity

Social organization of Great Zimbabwe State

The society at Great Zimbabwe was Characterised by social classes namely the ruling class that enjoyed a number of privileges and the commoner class that was burdened with tribute. The king lived separate from the common people, he stayed in the Great Enclosure. Great Zimbabwe is said to have been inhabited by about ten thousand people. The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe were a religious people who worshipped Mwari. They also believed in the national spirits (mhondoro) and the ancestral spirits called (vadzimu), which were worshipped through the spirit mediums called Masvikiro. Mhondoro and Mwari were consulted during the times of troubles such as wars and shangwa (drought).

The spirit mediums were important during the installation of the new Mambo. All the religious ceremonies were presided over by the king. The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe usually curved soap stone birds during their spare time. These soap stone birds were made as symbols of Shiri yaMwari and they also symbolised religious beliefs and the importance of Mitupo. The Conical tower and the Eastern Enclosure were the areas believed to have been associated with religious functions. Many cattle were killed to feed the people at traditional ceremonies. The Mambo could lend his cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system. The karanga people at Great Zimbabwe were polygamists. Men could marry many wives and have many children who would enhance agricultural productivity. 

Economic organisation of Great Zimbabwe State

The economy at Great Zimbabwe was diversified into trade, crop cultivation, cattle rearing, mining, and tribute, hunting, gathering, and pottery, iron smelting; and raiding.

1.         The people at Great Zimbabwe were traders. They were involved in both internal and external trade. In internal trade, a sack of Rapoko could be exchange with an ox in times of shangwa. In foreign trade local available items such as gold, ivory and skins could be exchanged with foreign goods such as beads, bangles and clothes. The Chinese, Portuguese and Arabs were some of the major trading partners at Great Zimbabwe State.

2.         Crop cultivation formed the basis of Great Zimbabwe State’s economy. Much emphasis was on the production of cereals such as sorghum, millet, Rapoko and maize. Crop cultivation was the work of women and children. The grains obtained could be used in trade, to pay tribute and for consumption. Grains were also important for beer brewery, especially during ritual ceremonies.

3.         The people at Great Zimbabwe were pastoralist. They kept herds of cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle were mainly used to provide food during ritual ceremonies, for trade and to pay lobola. The king owned large herd of cattle from which some of these cattle could be redistributed to his subjects through the Kuronzera system. Cattle were a living bank of the Karanga people at Great Zimbabwe.

4.         Mining was also practised by the people at Great Zimbabwe especially gold panning. It is worth note that there was no vast mineral wealth within Great Zimbabwe but the Shona could go for gold panning in the River beds and River banks of Save and Runde. The minerals mined include gold, iron and copper. Gold was mainly traded with other people such as the Persians, while iron was forged into iron tools which enhanced agricultural productivity. Mining was done after harvest.

5.         Tribute collection was another economic activity at Great Zimbabwe. The subjects and the vassals paid tribute to the Mambo. The payment of tribute to the king was a sign of allegiance. The vassals paid tribute to the Mambo to avoid being raided. Tribute was paid to the King inform of grains, tools, gold, cattle, skins, ivory as well as cattle.

6.         Hunting and gathering were other economic activities at Great Zimbabwe. Large hunting parties could be organised in order to kill elephants which were desperately needed in order to get ivory to enhance external trade. Hunting was done by men. Gathering of fruits was done by women especially during their spare time.

7.         Pottery and weaving also formed the basis of the economy of Great Zimbabwe.

Pottery is the craft of making pots, dishes and other things made of fired clay. Weaving is the making of fabric by interlacing long threads passing in one direction with others at a right angle to them. These activities were done by women during their spare time. Pots were needed for cooking and for storage of grain and water. Women also made baskets. Thus crafting was a common feature at Great Zimbabwe. 

8.         Iron smelting and raiding were practised by the people at Great Zimbabwe. Blacksmiths could forge iron into tools such as hoes and axes which were very essential in crop cultivation. Iron smelters could receive a high social status. Raiding was mainly done to those vassals who refused to pay tribute to the Mambo. Such raids enabled the people at Great Zimbabwe to obtain items such as grain, tools and even captives and cattle.

Political organization of Great Zimbabwe State

The king lived within the Great Stone Structure. He was the head of the state whose duties were to control over the allocation of grazing land and presiding over religious and political activities. The King enjoyed a number of privileges such as access to hunting products, for example skins and ivory. The king enjoyed monopoly over long distance trade and enjoyed peasant labour at his court and in his field. The King was assisted by the Dare (a council of advisors) in carrying out his duties. Members of the Dare were appointed on merit and could help the King in presiding over court cases.

There were village chiefs and provincial chiefs who were answerable to the Mambo. All the subjects and vassals paid tribute to the Mambo as a sign of loyalty and this tribute was collected by the council of advisors. The ancestors of the Mambo were a unifying factor in the Great Zimbabwe State. They were highly regarded and supported by all the people in the state. Able bodied men could be summoned in times of war to serve as soldiers and they could retire to their homes after a military expedition. The spirit mediums were so important during the installation of the new Mambo. There was no clear system of succession after the death of the Mambo and this weighed much to the downfall of the state.

The decline of Great Zimbabwe State

The factors that led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe State can be classified into three that is, economic factors, political factors and social factors.

a) Economic factors

 Decline in external trade: trade routes shifted to the Zambezi and the people at Great Zimbabwe were deprived of important exotic items.

 Exhaustion of soil: led to the falling of agricultural productivity. Many people starved because of food shortages and fled to other areas where the land was fertile.

 Successive droughts caused poor harvests and this quickened the rate of emigration to other areas. Droughts also led to deaths of many cattle which were a living bank of the Karanga people at Great Zimbabwe, hence they abandoned the state.

 Shortage of resources such as salt, pastures and fuel also caused the collapse of the state. Such scarcity led to the emigration of many people, including Nyatsimbamutota, in search of salt. This mass migration made Great Zimbabwe to lose its political influence leading to its demise.

b) Political factors

 Succession disputes: erupted mainly because there was no clear system of succession. Such disputes brought disintegration in the state, for example after the death of Mambo Chibatamatose. Many people fled from Great Zimbabwe because of succession quarrels, e.g. Nyatsimbamutota.

 The vastness of the Empire: the state became so large such that communication between the King and the vassals became so difficult. This made the emergency of rebellious vassals, who with their activities, made the Mambo to lost control over the other areas of the Empire.

 External invasions: The Sotho-Tswana groups posed a serious threat to the stability of Great Zimbabwe State. Such external invasions weakened the state leading to the collapse of the state.

 Emergency of ambitious people: Mutota emerged as ambitious and he was determined in forming his own state in the Dande-Chidima area, north Zimbabwe. The emergency of Mutapa State under Mutota led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe as many people emigrated north with Mutota.

c) Social factors

 Overpopulation: the state declined because of overpopulation. The number of people available could not match with the resourceOvervieble. More so the vastness of livestock population resulted in overgrazing. As a result, many people started to move out of the state sealing the complete demise of the state.

MUTAPA STATE

The history of the Mutapa State was reconstructed mainly using the Portuguese documents, which extensively covered the economic activities of the Mutapa. Oral tradition of DP Abraham add more flesh on the history of the Mutapa state. The MutapaState can be called Mwenemutapa orMunhumutapa or Monomutapa. The founder of the state was Nyatsimbamutota. The social, economic and political activities as well as the reasons for decline will be unpacked in this book. It is worth note that the learners should study the history of the Mutapatogether with the history of the Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley. Learners should deeply study how the Portuguese led to the collapse of the Mwenemutapa State.

Some rulers of the Mutapa State

 Nyatsimbamutota

 Matope

 Nyahuma

 Kapararidze

 Negomo Mapunzagutu

 Mavhura

 Mukombwe

Provinces of the Mutapa state

 Manyika

 Guruuswa

 Mbire

 Uteve

 Madanda

 Dande

Portuguese who visited the Mutapa State

 Antonio Fernandez

 Gasper Bacaro

 Gonzalo Da Silveira

 Vasco Madeira

 Francisco Barreto

 Father Pereira

Factors that led to the development of theMutapa State

 The role of external trade

 Availability of gold and other minerals

 The ability of Mutapa Mutota

 The role of the army

 The presence of elephants for ivory  The role of religion

 Cordial relations with the foreigners

Things used to pay tribute in the Mutapa

 Gold

 Ivory

 Skin hides

 Cattle

 Grain

 Clothes

 Iron tools

The duties of the Mutapa King

 Control of long distance trade

 Allocation of grazing land

 Lending cattle to the subjects throughKuronzera

 The head of the state

 Commander in chief of the army

 Presided over national religious activities

 Presided over court cases

 He chose the provincial and district chiefs

 He chose the chief security calledMukomahasha

Economic activities in the Mutapa state

 Trade (internal and external trade)

 Mining

 Tribute

 Livestock production

 Crop production

 Raiding

 Hunting

 Gathering

 Blacksmithing

 Pottery

 Fishing

 Weaving 

 Basketry

Roles of the army in the Mutapa State

 To maintain peace and order

 To defend the state

 To protect the king and the royal family

 For state expansionist purposes

 To punish rebels

 For raiding goods in other areas

Officials in the Mutapa State

 Chief confidant (mbokorume)

 Chief Doctor (mangwende)             

 Chief secretary (ambuya mazvarira)

 Chief security (Mukomahasha)

 The royal princes

 The head drummer

 The cook

 The King’s 9 principal wives

 The king’s mother and sisters

Reasons for the decline of the MutapaState

 Succession disputes

 Exhaustion of gold and other resources

 The vastness of the Empire

 Poor leadership of certain Mutapas

 Portuguese interference

 Regional interference by ChangamireDombo

 The decline of external trade as the Portuguese became dominant

 The introduction of Islam or Christianity

 Natural disasters such as series of droughts

 Swahili influence

Social organization of the Mutapa State

The Mutapa people were a religious people. Religion was the chief integrating factor in the state. The common belief among the people was that when a King died he would go to heaven and become the Vadzimu. TheMutapa people believed in God and ancestral spirits. The ancestral spirits could be consulted in times of trouble such as wars and famine. The mhondoro were very important during the installation of the newMutapa. Thus the presence of religious leaders at the installation ceremony would sweeten the political act of the King. During famine all the people could consult the spirit of Dzivaguru who were at the shrine of rainmaking. The army was also blessed by the religious leaders before going for a military expedition. Thus all the soldiers would receive some charms fromMangwende the Chief Doctor. The Mutapamen were polygamous, they married many wives and had many children. The Mutapapeople paid bride price inform of cattle, iron tools and even beads and bangles. The King could distribute cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system. There were social classes in the Mutapa state in which the ruling upper class enjoyed many privileges.

Economic structure of the Mutapa State

1.         Crop cultivation was the back- bone of the Mutapa economy. Deep alluvial soils of the Zambezi enabled the Mutapa people to grow sorghum, millet and Rapoko. Maize and watermelons were introduced after the arrival of the Portuguese. Produce from agriculture could be traded or used to pay tribute or for consumption. The king owned a large field (Zunde raMambo) in which all the people provided labour. The produce from the king’s field could be distributed to the subjects during drought or used during national ceremonies.

2.         Cattle rearing constituted the basis ofMutapa economy. Cattle were used to paylobola, to provide meat and milk as well as to pay tribute to the Mambo. Many cattle were slaughtered to feed the visitors at MuzindawaMambo and to provide food during ritual ceremonies. The king used cattle to make theKuronzera system effectual. Cattle were a living bank of the Mutapa people.

3.         The Mutapa people were involved in both internal and external trade. In external trade items such as ivory and gold could be exchanged with exotic goods such as beads and clothes. It is important to remember that at first the Mutapa people traded with the Swahili, but after the death of Gonzalo the Portuguese became the major trading partners of the Mutapa.

4.         Tribute payment was another economic activity in the Mutapa State. The subjects could pay tribute to the King in form of cattle, beads, bangles, gold and grains. The payment of tribute to the Mutapa was a sign of loyalty. Most tribute was kept and recorded by the secretary of the state calledAmbuya mazvarira.

5.         Mining and hunting were practiced by the people of the Mutapa state. Gold mining was done by families who could go for panning. Gold mining was done after harvest and this unfolds the importance of agriculture in the Mutapa. Prospecting gold was very cumbersome, but the Mutapapeople possessed skills in prospecting through surveying rocks as well as soil types. Gold could be used in trade and to pay tribute. Elephant hunting was conducted in areas such Chidima and Dande along the Zambezi. Ivory was important in trade and tribute payment.

NB other economic activities were the same as those of Great Zimbabwe.

Political structure of the Mutapa State

The king was the head of the state and he was the central figure in social, economic and political activities within the state. He was called by the praise nameMunhumutapa and he could choose the military commander and could control long distance trade. Efficient government enabled the vastness of the empire from Zambezi to Limpopo and from Indian Ocean to Kalahari Desert. The King presided over court cases and was the chief of religious ceremonies. The Mutapa was assisted by aristocratic officials, territorial kings and chiefs to administer the empire. The council of advisors (Dare) advised the king on all important matters affecting the state.Mukomahasha was the chief security appointed by the king and could lead the army during war. Mbokorume (chief confidant) was mainly the son in law of the king ad he was told the secret by the king.Mangwende was the chief doctor of the king and played an important role in the installation ceremonies and before a military expedition is carried out. Other important state officials included the royal princes, the head drummer, the chief cook, the king’s mother and sisters. Mutapa placed his trusted relatives to be the vassals in areas such as Dande, Barwe and Manyika. Each vassal chief collected tribute on behalf of theMutapa inform of grain, gold and other items. Chiefs were appointed in consultation with the spirit mediums or mhondoro. All the vassals were required to light their own fire from the royal fire and kept it burning throughout the year as a further sign of loyalty.

Duties of the Captain of the Gates in theMutapa state

The following are some of the duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state:

 Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed theMutapa kings.

 Made sure that the Portuguese paid tribute to the Mutapa.

 They supervised the paying of taxes on Portuguese goods.

 Advised the Mutapa kings on matters concerning the Portuguese.

 Informed the Portuguese government on activities in the Mutapa state.

 Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state.

 Linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa.

 They served as interpreters of the Mutapakings.

 They represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa.

 They settled disputes between the Portuguese and Africans.

 Handing gifts from the Portuguese government to the Mutapa.

Mutapa-Portuguese Relations

a) Portuguese economic activities in Mutapa

They were involved in trade with the localMutapa people. Trading activities were manifested by the Portuguese’s establishment of trading posts at Massapa,Dambarare, Bucuto, Luanze and other areas. Trading relations saw the introduction of guns, clothes, beads, jewellery and ceramics in the Mutapa. These items were exchanged with local goods such as gold, ivory, cattle, grains and other things. The Portuguese introduced the credit system through which the locals were deprived of profitable trade. The Portuguese were also involved in gold mining and it is worth note that it was gold that lured them in the Zambezi valley. African labour was used for them to get minerals they desperately needed. 

The Portuguese also introduced the Prazo-system whereby they were involved in cultivation. Prosperous prazos were found on the South bank of the Zambezi from Teteand in these prazos new crops such as maize and new farming methods were introduced. Initially the Portuguese paid tribute (curva) to the Mutapa, but as time went on they repudiated and instead forced the Mutapa to pay them tribute. The Portuguese used their guns to hunt animals such as elephants which were desperately needed for their ivory. They were also involved in slave trade and by 1800, prazos became the centre of export for slaves. Most of African slaves were exported to Brazil and Cuba.

b) Portuguese political activities in theMutapa State

The death of Gonzalo was a spark plug of an increase of the Portuguese involvement in the Mutapa politics. Other historians and students of history pin point with certainty that the Portuguese came in the Mutapa state in the name of trade, but later changed like a chameleon and commenced to interfere in the internal politics of the Mutapa. In an attempt to destroy the Mutapa state, abortive military expeditions were carried out between 1569 and 1572 under FranciscoBarreto. When the Portuguese entered theMutapa state they troubled the waters leading to the expulsion of the Muslims from the

Mutapa. After the dislodging of the Muslims, the Portuguese started to influence theMutapa and consequently they were given large land grants (prazos) in return for help in times of war.

The Portuguese installed puppet leaders such as Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande, who usually ruled in favour of the Portuguese at the expense of the whole nation. The Portuguese also intervened in succession disputes by supporting rivalry claimants to the throne, e.g. during a succession quarrel of Rusere and Kapararidze, the Portuguese supported Gatsi Rusere. The Portuguese undermined the powers of the Mutapa by refusing to pay tribute and forced theMutapa to pay them curva. They also disrespected the Mutapa by forming their powerful armies e.g. warlords like Gouveia had a big Chikunda army. The availability of guns by the Portuguese weakened theMutapa state. The Portuguese even raided the people of the Mutapa and even took the duties due to Mutapa kings e.g. they claimed ritualistic rights.

c) Portuguese social activities in the Mutapastate

The Portuguese were first determined in spreading Christianity. This is revealed by the work of Gonzalo who in 1560 convertedMutapa Negomo and about 500 of his family and court officials. The Portuguese practiced slavery to obtain labour for their prazos. Slavery is the treating of other human beings as part of your property. The Portuguese intermarried the African women and had the children which were called the Mulatos. However, some of the members of theChikundas and the prazeros even brutally abused women, e.g. sexual harassment. The Portuguese even refused to show respect to the Mutapa kings and this was a taboo according to the Shona way of life.

The decline of the Mutapa State

The following are the generally agreed factors that led to the collapse of theMonomutapa Empire:

 Succession disputes which were among the rivalries and the royal princes weakened the state. A good example was a dispute betweenKapararidze and Mavhura after the death ofGatsi Rusere. Such disputes brought division and precipitated the collapse of the State.

 Poor leadership of certain Mutapas was another cause for the collapse of the

Mutapa state. Such inability of the kings was partly because some of the

Mutapa were young when they ruled the Empire. Certain rulers like Gatsi Ruserelacked charisma and military prowess to keep the state united, hence they frequently relied on the Portuguese to stay in power. This made the fall of the state inevitable.

 The state collapsed because it was too large to be controlled by one king. It has been agreed by the students of history that theMutapa state extended from the Zambezi to Limpopo and from Indian Ocean to the Kalahari Desert. Such vastness of the Empire made communication with all parts of the Empire to be extremely difficulty. Thus giving a green light to the rebellious people like Changa.

 The introduction of Islam and Christianity is said to have caused the decline of theMutapa state. These religions, according to oral tradition, are said to have destroyed traditional religion which was a unifying element in the Mutapa State. Thus the state disintegrated and fell as a result.

 Depletion of resources such as land, gold and ivory caused the demise of the Mutapastate. The absence of such important resources weakened the state economically, politically and socially leading to its downfall.

 The decline in external trade made the downfall of the Mutapa state unavoidable. The Portuguese became dominant in this trade taking over from the Mutapa kings. The Kings were no longer enjoying a monopoly over this trade. 

 The regional interference by ChangamireDombo and the Rozvi weakened also theMutapa state. It has been argued that by the 18th century the Mutapa state was almost like a vassal state of the Rozvi Changamirestate.

 The interference of the Portuguese led to the decline of the Mutapa state. The Portuguese supported one group in the event of clashes between the Mutapa rulers. The Portuguese also helped in the enthronement of weak puppet Mutapas such as Mavhuraand Rusere. The Portuguese also fanned succession disputes since they took sides in disputes. They are also blamed for destroying the Nevinga system which averted quarrels after the death of the King. According to this system after the death of the king, theNevinga could temporarily be a king before a new king is chosen. Thus taking a glance on the above, the Portuguese should be blamed for the collapse of the Mutapa state.


ROZWI STATE

Historians agree that the founder of theRozvi State was Changamire Dombo, a vassal to the Mutapa who finally rebelled and founded his state South West Zimbabwe in the strength of cattle. Extensive study by learners must be on the social, economic and political organisations of the Rozvi state. Equally important the decline of the study should be studied together with the impacts of Nguni incursions. The role of cattle in the state and the Ndebele-Rozvi relations should be taken note of. Some of the Rozvi Kings

 Chirisamhuru 1

 Chirisamhuru 2

 Changamire Dombo

 Gumboreshumba

 Gomoremvura

 Rupandamanhanga

 Nechagadzike

Uses of cattle in the Rozvi state

 Payment of tribute

 As symbol of wealth

 Used in Kuronzera

 Used to get food such as milk and meat

 Used in trade

 Used in ritual ceremonies

 Used to pay lobola

 Skins were used to make shields, drums and mats

Rozvi capitals

 Danangombe

 Naletale

 Dhlodhlo

 Manyanga

 Kame

 Tsindi

 Ntabazikhamambo

The Nguni groups which attacked theRozvi state

 Maseko

 Kololo

 Ngoni

 Ndebele

 Ngwane

 Msene Ngoni           

 Jere Ngoni

Economic activities in the Rozvi state

 Cattle rearing

 Crop cultivation

 Trade

 Tribute

 Mining

 Raiding

 Hunting and gathering

 Blacksmithing

 Pottery and weaving

 Fishing and basketry

Duties of the Rozvi army

 Expanding the frontiers of the Rozvi state

 Defending the state

 Ensure that the subjects obey the king

 For raiding

 Attacking the invaders e.g. the Portuguese in 1693

 Protecting the refugees who fled from the Portuguese

 Maintain peace and order

Reasons for the collapse of the Rozvi

 Successive droughts

 Succession disputes

 Disagreement between political leaders and religious leaders

 Exhaustion or depletion of resources

 The vastness of the Empire

 Rozvi failure in incorporating some Chiefdoms

 Disruption of trade by the Portuguese

 Civil wars

 Nguni incursions

Social organization of the Rozvi State

The Rozvi belonged to the Moyo totem and were patrilineal. Their homesteads were made up of lineages. Those who owned large herds of cattle were highly respected and they acquired a high social status. The Rozvipracticed ritual, religious and rainmaking ceremonies. They believed in the existence of the Supreme Being and spirits. The Rozviancestors were highly regarded and the King could preside over all national ceremonies.

Religion and politics in the Rozvi state were interwoven and the Mambo was regarded as a semi god. The Rozvi were polygamous, wealthy men could marry many wives.Lobola was paid inform of cattle and even iron tools. The wearing of glass beads was regarded as status symbol. The Kuronzerasystem was carried out by the King to help his subjects. The Rozvi enjoyed the veneration of spirits through the ceremonies called Bira. Religious authority relied on the support of the military leader calledTumbare, who stood in the place of the mambo after his death until a new mambo was installed. Economic structure of theRozvi

1.         Crop cultivation was the back- bone of the Rozvi economy. They grew crops such as sorghum, millet and Rapoko. Produce from agriculture could be traded or used to pay tribute or for consumption. The produce from the king’s field could be distributed to the subjects during drought or used during national ceremonies.

2.         Cattle rearing constituted the basis ofRozvi economy. Cattle were used to paylobola, to provide meat and milk as well as to pay tribute to the Mambo. The king used cattle to make the Kuronzera system effectual. Cattle were a living bank of theRozvi people. The largest herd belonged to the king.

3.         The Rozvi people were involved in both internal and external trade. In external trade items such as ivory and gold could be exchanged with exotic goods such as beads and clothes. Trade in the Rozvi state was conducted through the Vashambadzi.

4.         Tribute payment was another economic activity in the Rozvi State. The subjects could pay tribute to the King in form of cattle, beads, bangles, gold and grains. The payment of tribute to the King was a sign of loyalty. Those who refused to pay tribute were subjected to raiding.

5.         Mining and hunting were practiced by the people of the Rozvi state. Gold mining was done after harvest. Gold could be used in trade and to pay tribute. Elephant hunting was conducted to get ivory. Ivory was also important in trade and tribute payment.

NB other economic activities were the same as those of Great Zimbabwe.

Political organization of the Rozvi

The mambo was the head of the state and was a hereditary ruler. He was overall in charge of military, social, economic, religious and political power. The Changamire (king) ruled with the assistance of the dare, which comprised of priests, military leaders and provincial governors. Provincial chiefs and sub chiefs were appointed by the King to be in charge of provinces and chiefdoms. The headmen played an important role in theRozvi politics. The King was the distributor of land and the holder of other property in trust of the state. Loyalty to the mambo was shown through the payment of tribute. Religious leaders were involved in the installation of the new mambo.

 The Mambo had several wives who played an important role in advising him. The wives played a spy network informing the King on important matters which could threaten the state. The army commander was Tumbare orMutinhima, who was purely chosen by the King on matters of bravery and could act as a regent king after the death of the Mambo. The Mavhudzi were the Vazukuru who played an important role in advising theChangamire. They were the ambassadors who could be sent on important state assignments.

The collapse of the Rozvi state

 Successive droughts resulted in depletion of cattle herds leading to the collapse of the state. Many people started to migrate in search of better grazing lands.

 Succession disputes hindered the survival of the Rozvi state. The disputes culminated into civil wars. The civil wars of the late 18th century brought divisions in the state. There were serious disagreements betweenGomoremvura and his son over the Rozviruler-ship, and this division led to the collapse of the Empire.

 Disagreements between the Rozvi rulers and the religious leaders led to the collapse of the Rozvi state. Oral tradition says these quarrels led to drought which greatly affected livestock production which was the base of the Rozvi economy.

 Depletion of resources such as gold made the decline of the Rozvi state. Exhaustion of gold fields meant loss of foreign trade, thereby killing the life line exchange in foreign goods.

 The failure of the Rozvi to incorporate some chiefdom like the kalanga led to the decline of the state as these groups frequently threatened the sovereignty of theRozvi state.

 The Nguni invasions was another cause for the collapse of the Rozvi state. The Rozvistate was attacked by at least six Nguni groups which include the

Ngwane, Maseko, Ngoni and Kololo. CapableRozvi rulers were killed by these invaders and the caused political displacement. Forexample their invasion led Tohwechipi, who was to succeed Chirisamhuru, to flee toNyaningwe leaving powerOver

ZULU STATE

This state was one of the Nguni states. In this booklet, the following subtopics will be discussed: the rise of Tshaka, his military reforms, political structure, social organization and economic activities. The causes of Mfecane, results of Mfecane and the reasons for Tshaka’s downfall will be discussed. The learners are also encouraged to read about the Zulu state under Dingane,Mpande and Cetshwayo. They should read about the Anglo Zulu war as well as the fall of the Zulu state.

States and their leaders in Northern Nguni in the 19th century  

 Mthetwa under Dhingiswayo

 Ndwandwe under Zwide

 Ngwane under Matiwane

Tshaka’s military reforms

 Scotched earth policy

 Soldiers were to run bare foot

 The cow horn formation

 The use of the assegai

 The use of the Zulu shield

 Surprise night attack

 Spy networking

 Use of smoke for communication

Leaders and their groups who fled fromMfecane

 Mzilikazi and the Khumalo

 Sebitwane and the Kololo

 Sobhuza and the Ngwane

 Soshangane and the Shangani

 Zwangendaba and the Jere Ngoni

Problems faced by Tshaka as a king

 Faced hatred due to expansionist policies

 Death of Nandi his mother

 Jealous relatives

 Enemies in his army

 Rebellion of Mzilikazi

 Threats from expansionist Boers and British

 His army commanders were unfaithful 

 Shortage of resources

Reasons for the downfall of Tshaka

 Tshaka was dictatorial

 His strict discipline created enemies

 Mass killing of people

 Ambitious relatives

 Jealous of his relatives

 He neglected advise of his advisors

 Threats of the Whites

People who plotted the downfall of Tshaka

 Mkabayi

 Mhlangane

 Dingane

 Mbhopha

 Mfokazana

The rise of Tshaka

Tshaka was the son of Nandi and his father was Senzangakona, a Zulu chief. He spent his childhood among his mother’s people because he is believed to have been an illegitimate son. It was during hi tender age when Tshaka showed signs of bravery. He thus distinguished himself and gained influence among other herd boys. By 1809Tshaka joined the army of Dhingiswayo who led the Mthetwa. Through his bravery and ability in terms of leadership, Tshaka stole the heart of Dhingiswayo and was diverted to the rank of a regimental leader. 

Within the army, Tshaka emerged as an extraordinary military thinker. Through his ability, Tshaka finally commandedDhingiswayo’s army. In 1816 when his father died, Tshaka was assisted by Dhingiswayo to ascend the Zulu throne. In order to remove all possible threats, Tshaka killed his half-brother, Sigujana, who was to rule the Zulu state. Once Tshaka achieved political power, he began to revolutionise the Zulu military and political structures.

Military reforms of Tshaka

Tshaka introduced the short stabbing spear called an assegai. This type of a spear was not to be thrown but rather each warrior was to march to the enemy and stab him. An assegai was to be returned after an expedition and whosoever lost his assegai was severely punished and labelled coward.

Tshaka also introduced the long shield which was often a height of a man. This shield was used together with an assegai and was used to protect the Zulu soldier from the spears of the enemies. The shield was used to hook the shield of an enemy in order to expose his belly and the stab him with an assegai.

The cow horn formation was a military battle tactic which enabled the Zulu warrior to envelope an enemy and attack him. The bravest warriors were to face the enemy while other forces on either sides would envelope the enemy and then attack him without escape.

Tshaka maintained the regimental system established by Dhingiswayo. Both boys and girls were recruited into the age regiments. Each regiment was identified by a peculiar military regalia (dress). All the members of a regiment were supposed to be forty years and below.

No young man was allowed to marry until after he washed sufficiently his assegai with the blood of an enemy. Thus marriage was won in the battle field. The Zulu warriors were often given women by Tshaka as a reward for their bravery in the battle field.

Tshaka introduced the scotched earthy policy in order to be victorious over his enemies. This policy meant destruction of everything that sustains life in the enemy zone. Things such as water sources, grain stores and fruit trees were destroyed by the Zulu Amabuthoas part of their scotched earth policy.

No Zulu warrior was allowed to run away from the enemy. Any Zulu warrior who killed an enemy was to collect his weapon and surrender it to Tshaka. A system of spy network was used to detect enemies. Tshakabanned initiation and circumcision ceremonies as well as the use of sandals in the army. The soldiers were to walk bare foot for greater speed. The young boys were employed as baggage carriers for the Zulu soldiers.

Zulu political organization

Tshaka remained the supreme authority of the Zulu state. He was assisted by a council of advisors, but important decisions were for him. Tshaka ruled with the help of territorial chiefs (Izindunas). He was the commander in chief of the army and the entire army was to gather once a year at the royal barracks to celebrate the first fruits of the year. Tshakapresided over all ceremonies done at the national level. The Zulu king was at the climax of the state functions and he personified the kingdom.

 All the people were encouraged to adopt the Zulu language and customs, and this was a political means to foster unity in the state.Tshaka appointed some of his relatives to rule the parts of the kingdom as governors and chiefs. Tribute was paid to Tshaka as a sign of loyalty. Those who refused to submit to Tshaka were subjected to raiding or death.Tshaka’s female relatives were given powers in provinces and they could act as spies of the King.

Zulu socio-economic organization

The main economic activities of the Zulu include crop cultivation, livestock production, trade, tribute, smelting, raiding and public works. There was division of labour along sex lines. Women and older girls were responsible for agricultural work and for domestic tasks such as rearing of children. Women made pots, baskets and they did household works such as thatching. 

Cattle rearing was practiced to get milk and meat. Cattle were killed during ceremonies such as Inxwala. Men did hunting and they also look after livestock. Cattle were highly valued in the Zulu society as having many cattle could give a high social status. Cattle skins were used to make shields and for trade.

The Zulu could marry many wives and have many children who would work in farms.Lobola was paid inform of cattle. The chief controlled all productive activities such as land, agriculture and livestock. The labourers were recruited to build huts of the King.Tshaka was regarded as a semi god and the sole religious leader of the Zulu. 

He was the leader of religious ceremonies such as Inxwala and he led the cult of rainmaking. No one was allowed to marry without the approval form Tshaka. The Zulu language and customs were supposed to be adopted by all the people in the Zulu kingdom. The Zulu girls played traditional dances in honouring their ceremonies such as Inxwala and Inkata.

 There was social stratification in the Zulu state as revealed by different social classes with different privileges and roles in the society. The members of the royal family formed the members of the upper class while the other people especially the captives, formed the base of the social pyramid.

Causes of Mfecane

Mfecane was a time of widespread wars from Nguniland caused by the following reasons:

 Rapid growth of human and animal population leading to clashes over diminishing resources.

 There was limited population movement because of the domination of the Europeans in the Cape. This limited population movement led to wars over resources.

 The introduction of maize and dependence on it caused the Mfecane. Maize is prone to drought and it also enabled population growth over limited resources.

 Short supply of land caused the wars as the population was increasingly growing.

 The Mhlatule drought of the 19th led to starvation in Nguniland and therefore people started to fight over the resources available.

 Competition over resources as a result of population growth caused the widespread wars.

 The rise of the Zulu king with new method of warfare resulted in the general time of trouble in Nguniland.

 The increased demand of slaves by the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay in Maputo made the locals to capture people for selling leading to serious clashes. Results of Mfecane

The Mfecane had constructive and destructive impacts down south and in the areas north of the Limpopo. The following were the results of the Lifaqane:

 There was general redistribution of population to other areas.

 There was population increase especially in the areas north Limpopo.

 Mfecane led to depopulation as many people died during the wars.

 Mfecane marked the end of the Prazosystem in the Zambezi.

 There was the spreading of the Zulu military tactics to other people north Limpopo.

 Many chiefs were killed by the Mfecanegroups e.g. Chirisamhuru the second was killed by Nyamazana

 It led to the decline of many states e.g. theRozvi state, Lozi state and the Tumbuka state.

 It led to the creation of other nations e.g. Lesotho and Swaziland.

 It led to the creation of other states which played an important role during White encroachment.

The downfall of Tshaka

Tshaka’s policies of continuous warfare with other states was a disaster to him as a king. Total warfare made him to create a bigger and complicated state for him to rule. Tshakaalso neglected the advice from his advisors and he even killed many people on petty issues.

Thus Tshaka became dictatorial and there was a general discounted against him in all the Empire. Those who were dissatisfied with the policies of Tshaka grew in large numbers. In 1824 there was an abortive assassination attempt of Tshaka.

In 1828 a pot was organized by Tshaka’srelatives namely Mkabayi, Mhlangane andDingane and they killed him in a broad day light. This plot was successful because the army was away on a military expedition. Thus Dingane assumed the Zulu throne after murdering Mhlangane who helped in the plot against Tshaka.