HERITAGE STUDIES 2

Reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe

• the need for minerals
• a strategy to stop Boer expansion
• the Cape to Cairo dream
• to compensate failed investments in Rand
• the need for new markets
• the need for land
• the need to invest surplus capital

British colonizers of Zimbabwe

• Rhodes C.J
• Colonel Pennefather

• Charles Rudd
• Rockford Maguire

• Francis Thomson

• F.C Selous
• Allan Wilson

• J.S Moffart

Stages in the colonization of Zimbabwe

• Moffat treaty of 1888
• Rudd Concession of 1888
• Royal Charter of 1889
• Formation of the BSAC in 1890
• Jameson’s Party to Lobengula in 1890

• The Pioneer Column from 1890
• The war of dispossession 1893-1894

• The first Chimurenga 1896-1897

The treaties signed with Lobengula

• Tati concession in 1870

• Grobler treaty in 1887
• Moffart treaty in 1888
• Rudd concession in 1888

• Lipert treaty 1890

Forts built by the BSAC in Zimbabwe

• Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria, Fort Charter,  Fort Salisbury, Fort Usher, Fort Rixon, Fort Melsetter, Fort Martin

Why Lobengula failed to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe

• Rhodes bribed many people
• Lipert cheated and tricked Lobengula
• Lobengula’s Indunas misled him

• Missionaries cheated Lobengula

• Lobengula was illiterate and could not have read the terms on the treaties he signed
• The Boers did not aid the Ndebele

Causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war

• Jameson boundary
• Conflict over the Shona
• Failure to find gold in Mashonaland
• Company shares fell
• Company desire for the second Rand
•  Ndebele raids on settler properties
• Settler desire to destroy the Ndebele state

• The Victoria incident

Causes of the First Chimurenga

• Brutality of the BSAC policemen

• Loss of productive land
• Loss of cattle
• Ill-treatment of native workers

• Forced labour

• Hut tax
• Natural disasters
• Loss of independence

• Loss of trade routes
• Abuse of black women

African leaders involved in the First Chimurenga

• Zvimba, Chinamora, Seke, Mapondera, Zhanda, Nyandoro, Mashayamombe, Hwata, Chiwese, Nyamweda, Kaguvi, Nehanda, Chihota, Mangwende

Religious leaders involved in the First Chimurenga

• Kaguvi, Mkwati, Siginyamatshe, Bonda, Chifamba, Mabwani, Nehanda

Reasons for the defeat of the natives in the First Chimurenga

• Inferior weapons of the locals

• The capture of Shona leaders

• Lack of unity among the locals

• Lack of strategy

• Superior weapons of the Whites

• The Whites were helped by other Powers

• Ndebele surrender

• Hunger and starvation

• Scotched earthy policy of the Whites

Causes for the colonization of Zimbabwe

1.  The British colonized Zimbabwe because they wanted mineral resources such as gold and ivory. Zimbabwe was regarded as a possible second Rand and the British occupied the territory in order to exploit the minerals.

2.  Faulty investments in the Rand made Rhodes develop interests in colonizing Zimbabwe.

3.  Zimbabwe was colonized as a British strategy to force the Boers to accept the British scheme of South African Confederation under the British law. The Boers had refused to join the British, and after this the British were determined to colonise areas north Limpopo to stop the expansion of the Boers northwards.

4.  Zimbabwe was colonized as part of the fulfilment of the Cape to Cairo project by Rhodes. Rhodes was an imperialist who wanted to control vast lands in Africa from South Africa to Cairo.

5.  Missionaries caused the colonization of Zimbabwe. The protestant ideology of

missionaries all pressed them towards supporting the colonization of Zimbabwe. After their failure to convert any single soul in Matabeleland, missionaries started to make clarion calls for the colonization of Zimbabwe. This attracted many imperialists leading to the colonization of the state.

6.  Zimbabwe was colonized in order to enable the settlement of the Whites. The land which was promising high agricultural productivity and the pastures of Matabeleland well for cattle ranching, all impressed the British to colonize Zimbabwe.

7.  Racist tendencies that was high during the 19th century also explain why Zimbabwe was colonized. Rhodes believed the British to be the finest race in the world. Thus he colonized Zimbabwe and other countries in order to civilise what he labelled barbaric race of Africa.

The Grobler treaty 1887

• The Transvaal government of the Boers wanted to expand north Limpopo after the discovery of gold at Witwatersrand. They believed that Zimbabwe had vast gold deposits more even to that of the Rand.

• Paul Kruger sent Peter Grobler to Lobengula to discuss for a friendly treaty and Kruger’s envoys agreed the following with Lobengula, King of the Ndebele:

a.  Lobengula was to be a friend of the Boers

b.  Hunters and traders from Transvaal were to be allowed to operate freely in

Matabeleland.

c.   The Transvaal government was allowed to maintain permanent representatives

at Bulawayo.

d.  Lobengula agreed to provide military aid to the Boers against the British.

e.  The Boers were to help Lobengula against his enemies

f.    Lobengula agreed to catch and hand back all the criminals who escaped from

Transvaal

g.  Lobengula was not allowed to administer the Boers. Thus the content of the

treaty was entirely in favour of the Boers.

• The signing of this treaty triggered the scrambled for Zimbabwe as many concession seekers streamed into the country. The treaty alarmed the British who did not want to see Zimbabwe falling into the hands of the Boers. The British then sent JS Moffart to Lobengula leading to the cancelling of the Grobler treaty and the signing of the Moffart treaty.

The Moffat Treaty 1888

• The main purpose of Moffat’s mission was to reverse the Gobbler treaty of 1887 and to bring Matabeleland into the British sphere of influence as a step towards the British occupation of Zimbabwe. The treaty was signed by Lobengula and John Smith Moffat in February 1888.

• Moffat was sent because he was the son of Robert Moffart who had been friended Lobengula’s father during the 1820s. It was hoped that this relationship would help to oil the wills of diplomacy. It affirmed that peace and amity should continue to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.

• Lobengula was persuaded to make no dealing with any other foreign power without the knowledge and permission of the British High commissioner or Lobengula promise that if and when he tended to cede any land to another imperial power, he must consult the British first.

• Lobengula had no intention to cede land to another imperial power and thus probably why he signed. It brought the British a step forward towards the colonisation of Zimbabwe. In order for the British to safeguard or consolidate their position they now sought for another concession from Lobengula. It eliminated other players in the scramble for Zimbabwe. This was called the Rudd concession.

The Rudd Concession 1888

• Rhodes was not satisfied with the terms of the Moffat treaty, and thus sent a delegation of three people to negotiate for a mineral treaty with Lobengula. The envoy included Charles Rudd (a friend of Lobengula), Rockford Maguire (a lawyer) and Francis Thomson (a fluent Nguni Speaker). A close scrutiny can leave none with doubt that the organization of a delegation reveals that Lobengula was a victim of calculated deception.

• Charles Helm a missionary also misled the Ndebele king into signing the Rudd concession. Pressure to sign the legal document came also from Lobengula’s trusted Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, who had been bribed by the Whites. Thus the signing of the Rudd concession followed an incredible saga of chicanery.

• The following were the written terms (non-verbal) and non-written (verbal terms) of the Rudd concession:

a) Written terms

• Lobengula was to receive 100 pounds (British money) per month

• Lobengula was to be given 1000 rifles (guns)

• Lobengula was also to be given 100 000 rounds of ammunition (bullets)

• A gunboat was to be placed in the Zambezi River

• The whites were allowed to do what they deem necessary

• The Whites were granted all metals and minerals in Matabeleland

b) Non written terms

• Lobengula promised that no more than ten men would enter his kingdom.

• He promised that those entering the Ndebele kingdom would follow the Ndebele

laws/rules.

• If and when acquired to do so, those entering the kingdom would assist Lobengula in defending his state.

• No entrance of men and machinery into the Ndebele kingdom before the payment of first instalment of the guns promised.

• The concession to be published in newspaper for the world to know.

• The Whites were to dig one hole and return back to South Africa.

Reaction of Lobengula after the Rudd concession

• After E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated by Rhodes’s men, he wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession.

• He also wrote a letter to the British High Commissioner based in Botswana. He also sent two emissaries to the Queen in England accompanied by Maund. Lobengula even killed his two Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, because they had misled the king into signing the Rudd Concession.

• Lobengula invited many explorers to explain to him about the Rudd Concession. He continued to emphasize the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to those at his court.

• Lobengula publicly denounced the Rudd concession and a search party was sent after Maguire.

• Lobengula finally signed the Lipert treaty to frustrate Rhodes. However despite Lobengula’s efforts to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe, the diplomacy of Rhodes as well as missionary chicanery made the colonization of Zimbabwe predetermined.

The Royal Charter 1889

• After the Rudd concession, Rhodes wasted no time in seeking a royal charter from the British Queen. A charter is an official document from a Queen granting somebody a permission to do something on behalf of a certain government. The charter was granted to Rhodes in October 1889 by the Queen. The Charter granted Rhodes and his group the following:

1.  (a)  To promote good governance

2.  (b)  To preserve peace and order

3.  (c)  To issue mining concessions

4.  (d)  To grant plots of land

5.  (e)  To establish banks

6.  (f)  To make roads, railways and telegraphs

7.  (g)  To promote trade and commerce

8.  (h)  To promote civilization

9.  (i)  To respect the local customs, laws and religion

10.         (j)  To ban the sale of liquor to the locals

11.         (k)  To abolish slave trade

• By the provisions of the charter the result was that Rhodes and his group were given all power to take over and rule the region to the north of Limpopo.

• Another result was the formation of the BSAC which was to invade Zimbabwe.

The Pioneer Column

• Having obtained the charter, Rhodes wasted no time in organizing a party which was to occupy the land between Zambezi and Limpopo for the first time.

• Adverts were sent throughout the entire world as far as to Canada and from many applicants only 200 were selected. Those who were suitable were aged 30 years and below and were supposed to have African experience. Those who were selected fell under the pay roll of Rhodes.

• The members of the Pioneer Column represented various skills, there were teachers, nurses, blacksmiths, carpenters, miners, farmers, bakers as well as traders. Rhodes promised each member of the Column a farm of 3000 acres as well as 15 gold mines on reaching Mashonaland.

• The occupation of Mashonaland was to be carried in a form of military invasion. Thus the Pioneers were accompanied by a police force of about 500, which was led by Colonel Pennefather together with Barrow and Heanry as juniors. The work of the police Force was to crush any resistance from the local people. Khama of Botswana also aided the Pioneers with soldiers. The leader of the Pioneers was Frank Johnson and the guider was Fredrick Courtney Selous who previously hunted in Zimbabwe.

• The march to Mashonaland started in early1890 with goods of the Pioneers carried by about 117 ox wagons. In June the Pioneers crossed Moloutsie River while in July the same year they crossed Shashi River.

• The Ndebele Amabutho wanted to vent out their exasperations as they saw the incoming of the Pioneers, but Lobengula restrained them because he clearly understood the detrimental effect of the White gun.

• On their way the Pioneers erected laagers and they built Forts such as Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria and Fort Charter.

• On September 12 1890, the Pioneers reached Harare. The Shona people received them as Vaeni.

• From that day up to 18 April 1980, the country was a colony of Britain for 90 years.

The war of Dispossession 1893-1894

Causes

1.  The company wanted to destroy the Ndebele kingdom because it symbolised the independent African state.

2.  The British settlers under Doctor Jameson had divergent interest over the Shona people. The Ndebele regarded the Eastern part of Zimbabwe as part of their tributary state system whilst the company and the white settler farmers saw the Eastern part as their source of labour.

3.  Jameson thought the solution was on drawing and defining a boundary where the Western part was Matabeleland and Eastern part Mashonaland under whites. The problem was that it kept shifting into Matabeleland and Lobengula was not willing to confine his raids within the Western part.

4.  Arrival and settlement of white settlers in Eastern Zimbabwe interfered with Ndebele tributary. Some Shona chiefs thought that an end to Ndebele raids. Some stopped paid annual tribute e.g. chief Nemakonde and chief Chivi and were killed for failure to submit to the Ndebele rule. To the British such acts were unacceptable because they interfered with the British activities as the Shona were their main source of cheap labour on their farms.

5.  The BSAC envied Ndebele land and Cattle at the same time they were hoping to discover gold, they had found little amount of gold in Mashonaland and the company shares were failing.

6.  The existence of large of large and powerful independent Africa State i.e. Ndebele was greatly resented by the settlers who viewed it as a symbol of Africa independence. They also thought that it would have a negative influence of Africans under their control.

7.  The Victoria incident -this incident took place following an attempt by Lobengula to assert his authority over his tributary state system. The 1892 incident occurred in and around Masvingo. The white settlers were engaged in farming and mining using the Shona as labourers. In May 1893 chief Gomara used Lobengula’s cattle to pay a fine to the British when his men had cut and carried away about 500 yards of telegraph wire. A primitive expedition was sent by Lobengula with strict instruction to avoid clashes with the settlers.

• In July 1893 a raid was carried out, homes burnt, men killed and women and girls driven into the neighbourhood of Fort Victoria. Farms and mines were deserted by the African labour force. As a result economic activities came to stand still. Jameson ordered Ndebele to leave the area within two hours but the Ndebele failed to withdraw in time resulting in skirmishes between them and the white forces. Eleven Ndebele warriors were killed and the rest fled. Sensing victory the settlers now demanded full scale war in order to destroy the Ndebele kingdom once and for all.

Course of the war

• The Victoria Incident led to the war between the Whites and the Ndebele. The settlers who volunteered to fight the Ndebele were promised 2469 hectares of land each and a herd of cattle. The Whites were aided by Khama with the soldiers to fight the Ndebele.

• The war started in October 1893 with the Ndebele being numerically superior, but using poor weapons such as spears. The Whites were armed with guns and modern weapons as well as horses which increased their mobility.

• The Whites under the command of William Forbes moved from Iron Hill Mine heading towards Bulawayo. The Ndebele intelligence units watched the movements of the Whites. The Whites built a laager on 25 October to rest after they crossed the Shangani River. Early in the morning the Whites were attacked by the Ndebele Amabutho and many Shona collaborators were killed because they were sleeping outside the laager.

• However the Amabutho were repelled after several hours of fighting. The Whites moved further and built another Laager near Mbembesi River on 31 October. The Ndebele also attacked the Whites but they were successfully repelled by the Whites. Many Ndebele soldiers were killed during this battle. The Whites wanted to storm Bulawayo and capture the Ndebele king but Lobengula responded by setting his capital on fire and then escaped northwards. The Whites captured the city and then raised the Union Jack on November 4 1893.

• Jameson ordered the pursuit of Lobengula because he thought that if the king was not captured, he [Lobengula] would continue encouraging the Amabutho to fight.

The Pursuit of Lobengula (Allan Wilson’s Party)

On 3 November Bulawayo fell to the BSAC Forces and Lobengula fled northwards. Jameson ordered Forbes and Captain Raaf to pursue and capture the Ndebele King. On December 3, Major Forbes and his Forces reached Lobengula’s Shangani Camp.

• The BSAC found out that Lobengula had quickly abandoned his camp and they failed to catch up with him. Fearing capture, Lobengula sent two chiefs to the pursuers pleading for peace. Lobengula’s surrender message and gold did not reach Forbes and the latter continued searching for Lobengula. Forbes and his Forces camped at Shangani.

• Allan Wilson’s Forces caught up with Lobengula’s fleeing Party on the Western side of the River. Wilson requested reinforcements but Forbes did not comply. Instead he dispatched Barrow with 20 men without instructing them whether they were a support unit or another attacking Force. Barrow’s Force joined Allan Wilson’s group on 4 December and together the White Forces attacked Lobengula’s group. Barrow together with Wilson were killed, except for 3 Whites who fled. Forbes did not assist his colleagues because the River was dangerously flooded. On December 5, Forbes and the rest retreated and they never captured Lobengula.

Results

• Matabeleland was opened up for white settlement signifying complete colonization of Zimbabwe.

• The white settlers were given land grants, 6350 acres and 20 gold claims plus part of Ndebele cattle, as a reward for being involved in the war.

• Two reserves namely Gwai and Shangani were created by Ndebele and were dry infertile hot tsetse infested.

• The rest of the Ndebele cattle were taken over by the company by virtue of conquest, only 40,000cattle were left to the Ndebele.

• White settlement brought taxation, forced labour and other forms of political and exploitation.

• New communication channels were developed in Bulawayo. Telegraph line was erected which linked Bulawayo with Cape Town.

• Trading stores, Banks and new houses were established and a printed daily newspaper was produced.

The First Chindunduma/Chimurenga 1896-7

Causes

·       The Ndebele regarded Gwai and Shangani reserves as graveyards.

·       The Ndebele cattle were taken by the Whites after the war of dispossession.

·       Both the Ndebele and the Shona were subjected to taxation e.g. hut tax.

·       The use of Shona police angered the Ndebele who regarded the Shona as

inferior.

·       Both the Shona and the Ndebele were subjected to forced labour in mines and

farms.

·       Usurpation of chiefly prerogatives, that is, the local chiefs were deprived of their

duties such as land allocation.

·       There was loss of independence as the locals were subjected to colonial rule.

·       The Whites were brutal to both the Shona and the Ndebele.

·       Natural disasters such as drought, rinderpest and locust made the native to fight

against the Whites as they were misinterpreted by the religious leaders.

·       The Shona were angered by the loss of their trade with the Portuguese.

·       Jameson Raid gave the Ndebele an opportunity to attack the isolated White

farms.

Course of the war

Ndebele uprisings

• The war started in March 1896 when the Ndebele learned that Jameson and the White Forces were on a military expedition against the Transvaal government. In March many Whites were killed by the Ndebele Amabutho and the Whites were scattered about the country at farms and mines. In the last week of March 122 White men, 5 women and 3 children were murdered in isolated homesteads and camps.

• The Amajaha also killed the Shone labourers who worked in farms and mines of the Whites.

• The Ndebele were armed with traditional weapons such as arrows, bows, assegais, axes and knobkerries. By early April White survivors were in fortified camps at Bulawayo and Gwelo (present day Gweru).

• The religious leaders such as Mabwani, Umlugulu and Mkwati influenced the Ndebele to drive the Whites out of the country as they blamed then for natural calamities such as drought, rinderpest and locusts. The religious leaders influenced the Amajaha to deliberately leave the road to the South open so that the Europeans might have the opportunity of escaping.

• In April Major Plummer was appointed commander the Matabele Relief Force. As from April 28 the Matabele soldiers were driven out of Bulawayo. The Amabutho had nothing to do, but all they could do was to hold out in the tangle of granite kopjes that is Matopo Hills.

• The Whites tried to starve the Ndebele, but it was difficult because another uprising began in Mashonaland. Rhodes was determined to make peace with the Ndebele and then concentrate all the resources against Mashonaland. This led to the Indaba peace talks.

The Indaba Agreement

• The war continued unabated and Rhodes was worried because

1. the fighting was costing the BSAC a lot of money.

2. he mines were not working and the BSAC was losing its profits.

3. The Whites were fighting war from two fronts i.e. Matabeleland and Mashonaland.

• Rhodes decided to talk with the Natives. The Ndebele also wanted peace with the White because the villages, crops and grain stores were being burned by the Whites.

• In August 1896, Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas had a meeting and agreed the following:

·      Rhodes promised that the Ndebele could return to their lands if they agreed to stop fighting.

·      Rhodes chose 10 Indunas who would be paid a monthly salary.

·      The trial of the Ndebele officials who committed crimes in the war.

·      Mwari cult officials should be punished for their role in the war.

·      The Ndebele weapons were to be submitted to the settler government.

·      Rhodes would give the Ndebele grain, food as well as seeds.

• By this agreement the Ndebele lost freedom and independence. Their arms were lost to the Whites and leaders were tried and sentenced to death

The Shona Uprising: June1896

• The war started in June in Mashayamombe area. Eurocentric historians argues that the Shona rose against the Whites because they feared to be punished by the Ndebele, thereby overlooking the real causes of the first Chimurenga.

• In a few weeks the White farmers, miners, traders and prospectors were killed by the Shona. The Shona used guerrilla warfare and inferior weapons such as spears against the Whites who used Maxim guns and Dynamites.

• The Whites established laagers for protection against spears. The Shona could attack the Whites and retreated in the caves. Such battle tactic made it difficult for the Whites to quickly defeat the Shona. The Shona were united by religious leaders such as Mkwati, Kaguvi, Nehanda, Bonda and Chifamba.

• However some the Shona did not fight against the Whites, but for the Whites. Such collaborators include Chirimuhanzu, Zimuto and Matiki. The Whites were aided by Britain and Botswana to fight the Shona. This made the Whites have an upper hand during the zenith of the Chimurenga.

• The Whites finally used the scotched earthy policy to starve the natives and those who hid in the caves were dynamited, for example, Makoni in his Gwindingwi.

• The capture of religious leaders such as Kaguvi and Nehanda led to Shona surrender in 1897.

The Chimurenga and religious Leaders

• The spirit mediums were behind the Ndebele-Shona risings. The spirit mediums like Nehanda, Kaguvi and Mkwati coordinated the war. The religious leaders motivated the fighters e.g. Umlugulu and other spirit mediums prophesied that the Whites were doomed and would be driven out of the country.

• Mlimo’s messages influenced the fighters to expect supernatural help from Mlimo (God). Thus religious leaders maintained morale among the fighters. The religious leaders in Matabeleland also planned the timing of the Ndebele uprising. It coincided with the Jameson Raid of 1896 when the Police Force was in the Transvaal.

• The religious leaders influenced the Maungwe passage to be left open for the Whites to use it in escaping. However this led to the defeat of the locals as this route was used by the Whites to bring in reinforcement from outside. Mkwati, Kaguvi and Siginyamatshe played an organizing role during the war e.g. Siginyamatshe organised in an area South of Bulawayo, Nehanda in Mazoe, Kaguvi in Chegutu.

Results

·      The Natives were defeated.

·      Many natives died, but the number of the Whites was few.

·      Trade and agriculture were disrupted.

·      A system which was to check African ill-treatment was established.

·      Hut tax was reduced.

·      Effective control of the colony began.

·      Many locals turned to Christianity to follow Western culture.

·      More reserves were created.

·      A land commission was established.

·      There was railway expansion from Mafeking to Harare and from Beira to Harare,

and Bulawayo line reached Harare in 1897.

·      Britain decided to monitor and control the operation of the BSAC in Rhodesia by

stationing the Commandant General and the British High Commissioner.

·      The Chimurenga had effect of delaying the development of modern politics in this

country.

·      Peace settlement called the Indaba Agreement was negotiated between Rhodes

and the Ndebele Indunas.

Reasons for Shona-Ndebele defeat

·      The use of inferior weapons such as bows and arrows, etc.

·      Superior weapons used by the Whites such as guns made the Natives to be easily

defeated.

·      Lack of unit among the Natives, the locals fought separately i.e. the Shona alone

while the Ndebele alone.

·      Collaboration with the Whites made the defeat of the Natives inevitable.

·      The Natives lacked strategy as vital routes through which the Whites received

reinforcement were left open.

·      The White received aid from Botswana, Britain and South Africa.

• ·      Economic crises led to surrender of the Natives to surrender.

• Indigenous Community Gatherings
  • these are events and gatherings native to Zimbabwe that form part of tradition.
  • such events and gatherings bring people together providing a sense of Unity and one-ness.
  
  
  • An example is Nhimbe / Ilima where:
  - a family asks for help in weeding, cultivating, planting, harvesting or fencing their fields.
  - the family needing assistance communicates to other community families and if the day is acceptable, they meet and start the task.
  - before, during and after the work, all participants are given food to eat, drinks (mahewu) / beer.
  - no one is paid directly as the system is a form of barter exchange in that every family can call for help an other community members can answer the call.
  
  
  Nyaradzo / Isikhumbuzo
  • this event came into being after more modern churches replaced older death and burial rituals.
  • a grieving family is helped by the community to explain the death and also console them.
  • the event is often held one month or two after the burial of a deceased but the grieving family also has to organize the food and other resources.
  • on the set date, the larger family and its friends meet and first a church service is performed, with church leaders talking about death, faith and the after-life.
  • after the church service, the people are served with food and the event ends, leaving behind close relatives only. The remaining relatives then divide up the estate of the passed member.
  • in the case of the death of a spouse, the surviving one is allowed to remarry if they so wish.
  
  
  The significance of ceremonies
  • ceremonies are used to unite people and as one they reflect on life, celebrate past events, commemorate their loved ones who have passed on etc.
  • ceremonies make up national ideology and build unity, with some offering a platform for competition among community members (for example weddings).
  • through ceremonies, children learn of hierarchies and authority figures within the community as well as how certain activities and events are held throughout life.
  • ceremonies are also a form of entertainment.
  • ceremonies are an important form of cultural preservation and socialization as well as talent scouting, teaching unhu /ubuntu while encouraging participation of community members as well as providing entertainment and recreation.
  
  
  Role playing at ceremonies
  • the person who directs a ceremony is called a Master of Ceremony. He / She is expected to be cheerful, energetic, sociable and able to engage crowds for a lengthy period.
  • at sensitive events like funerals, the chosen M.C. should be social but also calculative in the way he conducts an event. People react differently to jokes and some M.Cs have the ability to spin touching subjects into jokes that people can laugh off amidst their grief.
  • in modern times, for certain events like weddings, a professional M.C. is now hired and paid a fee for their services and time.
  • often though, a senior family member is chosen as he/she may be more culturally rounded and also know more family members.
  
  
  Importance of rituals
  • rituals are the formal proceedings/activities performed as a way of adding value to cultural and traditional events.
  • A good example is during a funeral where mourners grab handfuls of soil and throw them into the grave; this ritual stems from the term “dust to dust”, people were made from and will one day return to dust.
  • in certain cultures, rituals are used as a means of bidding farewell to a passed on loved one seeing them off into the afterlife; as a way of welcoming a newborn or bride into the family officially; consulting spirits of ancestors for guidance on challenges faced in life; celebrating a bumper harvest; asking the gods for good rains before planting season.
  • for rituals that require speaking with ancestors, spirit mediums are the ones who conduct the proceedings and may be required to abstain from sex for a certain period. If they engage in sex they are considered unclean and a ritual may fail due to this. If this happens, the party is asked to appease the ancestors for their wrongdoing thorough sacrificing a beast for ecample.
  
  
  Cultural Norms and Values
  • norms are defined standards and behaviours which evolve as people socialize. Among other purposes norms:
  - dictate how different parts of the community interact with each other,
  - define the roles of members in society,
  - determine how people dress in different places during varying occasions,
  • norms help a person behave as expected by their community, for example we are expected to be dressed at all times in public, address people accordingly as their social status demands etc.
  • norms are learned and reinforced by parents, friends, teachers, churches etc as a child grows. Due to this, certain parts of the community tolerate varying levels of deviation from the norms. For example, in this age of technology, younger people simply greet elders with a “hie” as opposed to older norms.
  
  
  • values are the core principles and ideals upon which an entire community exists.
  •  these are made up of customs (traditional rituals), values (which are beliefs), culture (which is all of a group’s guiding values).
  
  
  Norms and Values in the Workplace
  1. Responsibility
  • in a workplace, each team member is assigned a list of duties that they are expected to carry out. The employer or the team decides who gets to perform which duties and also ensures the team member carries out their duties within an acceptable standard. For more formal organizations, the duties of an individual are laid out in a contract. The contact dictates working hours, conditions for off and leave days, allocated time for breaks and reporting hierarchy.
  • Irresponsibility at work leads to loss in production time, revenue and falling standards leading to loss faith in an organization from its customers.
  
  
  2. Accountability
  • this is the employee’s ability to complete tasks as assigned to them, to perform duties required by their job and be present during their work shifts to fulfill the goals and objectives of the organization.
  
  
  3. Respect
  • respect can be defined as the consideration for self and of others. Respect includes consideration for other people’s privacy, their physical space, belongings; tolerance for different religious beliefs and personalities.
  • a workplace with respect creates a productive and engaged workforce and absence of the same creates conflict, high levels of turnover and grievances.
  
  
  4. Integrity
  • this is one of the fundamental values that employers seek in an individual; a person must demonstrate sound moral and ethical principles at work.
  • integrity can be demonstrated through working when one is expected to, managing their time and saving social activities for their own spare time; show empathy and behave appropriately among co-workers; be honest and do not short-change the employer at any time.
  
  
  5. Transparency
  • a transparent workplace encourages an environment free of fear encouraging employees to be open about their achievements and mistakes.
  • transparency at work can be defined as operating in a way that creates openness between managers and employees to create trust.
  • to encourage transparency employees must be given access to information and empowering to make decisions.
  
  
  6. Commitment
  • this is the level of enthusiasm an employee displays towards their assigned duties and how dedicated they are towards the mission and values of an organization.
  
  
  Threats to Cultural Norms and Values
  • is it appropriate to curse in public, or eat during a job interview? Would it be acceptable to kiss in a public park? The answer to these questions relies heavily on the country you reside.
  • threats to norms and values lead to a breakdown or confusion in the norms, values and culture of a group of or a society. The theory of Anomie states that deviance and crime occur when there is an acute gap between cultural norms and goals and the socially structured opportunities for individuals to achieve these goals.
  • some people view cultural dilution form adoption of exotic cultures (advent today with advances in technology) as cultural decay. This is a debatable topic as adoption of these is both problematic and also beneficial to our way of life.
  
  
  1. Foreign Influence
  • these are external influences that result from migration, urbanization and content consumed in media. When this happens, norms and values that are typical to Zimbabwe only are weakened in favor of the new, foreign ones.
  
  
  2. Media and ICT
  • technology is expanding and with it, children are exposed to foreign cultures that entice and excite them. Children easily adopt the norms and values of these cultures, setting aside their indigenous ones.
  
  
  3. Peer Pressure
  • children grow up in different environments and some, with absence of moulding from role models get used to behaviours that are not socially acceptable, for example drug abuse, alcohol abuse at an early age and engaging in sex in their teenage years.
  • when people similar ages then socialize, the peers who abuse alcohol may appear cool and the other children also start abusing alcohol.
  
  
  4. Urbanization
  • people move to urban centres for better job opportunities and as they relocate, they have less time to engage in certain activities or they may not be available at all in an urban setting.
  
  
  Birth and Death Rites
  • death rites have four major notable purposes. They:
  1. represent a complete set of plans that prevent the inborn conflicts between various age groups or the systematic ill treatment of children, women and the elderly.
  2. are part of a culture that can be passed down generations.
  3. represent a complete united initiation system.
  4. provide a way to solve social conflicts within families.
  
  
  Birth Rites
  • birth rites are a way of introducing new-borns into the family and present them to ancestral spirits.
  • each family, community or group has developed its own procedures and activities with regards to birth rite ceremonies.
  
  
  Umbilical Cord Unveiling
  • the new-born’s mother would carry the baby on her back until the umbilical cord fell off. After this, the mother can return home. During the growth of the child, ancestral consultation ceremonies are conducted to provide guidance for the child.
  
  
  Death Rites
  • when a person dies, older communities in Zimbabwe and around the world believed that the spirit of the deceased would wander aimlessly.
  • the purpose of a death rite would be to either calm the spirit and to see them off into the afterlife.
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